Вопрос № 1078061 - Английский язык

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International Relations
1. International Relations (IR) is the study of relationships among countries and the roles of sovereign states. As political activity, international relations dates from the time of the Greek historian Thucydides (460 – 395 BC), and, in the early 20th century, became a discrete academic field within political science.
2. The history of international relations based on sovereign states is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, a stepping stone in the development of the modern state system. Prior to this the European medieval organization of political authority was based on a vaguely hierarchical religious order.
3. Besides political science, the field of International Relations draws intellectual materials from the fields of technology and engineering, economics, history and international law, philosophy, geography and sociology. The scope of International Relations comprehends globalization, state sovereignty, ecological sustainability, economic development and global finance, human security and human rights.
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International Relations focuses on …

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International Relations
1. International Relations (IR) is the study of relationships among countries and the roles of sovereign states. As political activity, international relations dates from the time of the Greek historian Thucydides (460 – 395 BC), and, in the early 20th century, became a discrete academic field within political science.
2. The history of international relations based on sovereign states is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, a stepping stone in the development of the modern state system. Prior to this the European medieval organization of political authority was based on a vaguely hierarchical religious order.
3. Besides political science, the field of International Relations draws intellectual materials from the fields of technology and engineering, economics, history and international law, philosophy, geography and sociology. The scope of International Relations comprehends globalization, state sovereignty, ecological sustainability, economic development and global finance, human security and human rights.
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A Nation’s Wealth and Market Democracy
1. A nation’s wealth can be best determined by looking at its people. It is impossible to rely on any statistics. Economists define wealth as what a person owns, such as stock and real estate, but many people look first to their level of income to see if they are well off. Comparing salaries in different countries, however, is like comparing potato and rice, because the salaries in each country are paid in different currencies. Exchange rates, defined by the foreign exchange market all over the world, reflect the market’s view of each country’s economic and political situation. However, it is difficult to translate salaries by simply using currency exchange rates as the cost of living varies widely from one country to another. We must look at what salaries will actually buy in each country. By choosing a basket of necessary goods and services and calculating their cost in different countries, we can compare the purchasing power or «real» value of salaries from country to country. It gives a more reliable exchange rate, called purchasing power parity (PPP).
2. Judging from recent world experience, a socialist society was not as successful in producing the quality and quantity of goods and services as a market economy organized on the principles of a private free market and private ownership of the means of production. The major defining characteristic of a market economy is that decisions on investment and the allocation of producer goods are mainly made through markets. Market democracy is the culmination of more than three hundred years of economic and political thought.
3. Market democracy not only produces more than a socialist society, but it also allows individuals more liberty to choose how, where, when and for whom they will use their productive services.
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The Sources of Economic Wealth
1. In 1776, new technologies were being invented and applied to the manufacture of cotton and wool, iron, transportation and agriculture in what came to be called «The Industrial Revolution». Adam Smith, the founder of the economic theory, was keenly interested in these events. He wanted to understand the sources of economic wealth. He analyzed the way markets organize economic life and influence economic growth. He showed that a system of prices and markets is able to coordinate people and business without any central direction. He found that two main sources of economic wealth of a nation are the division of labour and free domestic and international markets.
2. Smith defined the division of labour as the source of «the greatest improvement in the productive power of labour». The division of labour became even more productive when applied to creating new technologies. Scientists and engineers, trained in extremely narrow fields, became specialists at inventing. Their powerful skills speeded the advance of technology. Machines started performing repetitive operations faster, and more accurately than people.
3. But, said Smith, the fruits of the division of labour are limited by the extent of the market. To make the market as large as possible, there must be no impediments to free trade both within a country and among countries. Smith argued that when each person makes the best possible economic choice based on self-interest, that choice leads as if by an Invisible Hand to the best outcome for society as a whole.
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Invisible Hand
1. This term was introduced by an 18th century Scottish philosopher Adam Smith. Under capitalism the Invisible Hand rather than governmental decrees and orders allocates goods, resources and manpower. Adam Smith stated the fundamental proposition: «In every country it always is and must be interest of a great body of the people to buy whatever they want of those who sell it cheapest».
2. For example, when butter is in short supply in an economy, its price would go up to reflect the scarcity. The higher price would encourage profit-seeking companies to increase production of butter. Later, if too much butter was produced, its price would fall. When price dropped, butter-makers would quickly cut back on production until the supply once again came in closer balance with the new level of demand. In a free economy, in which wages, costs and prices are left to the free play in the competitive market, the prospect of profits decides what goods will be made, and in what quantities – and what goods will not be made at all. In a properly functioning free-market economy many suppliers compete for customers who are free to buy at the best that they can find.
3. So, how to explain the role of competition? Each market actor, in buying or selling, is forced to meet the prices offered by competitors. But taken together in the market-place, all these «greeds» or personal desires must compete, creating what economists call aggregate (or collective) demand. Aggregate demand is the total demand for goods and services in the economy at a given time and price level. Aggregate demand is the powerful economic signal that stimulates production of goods that truly are wanted by a significant number of individual people. Ultimately, consumers, making their individual decisions, will «reward» those producers who come closest to delivering the desired goods. The kind of interplay between supply and demand is the Invisible Hand and it operates continuously in a free-market economy.
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Scarcity. Economic Wants and Productive Resources
1. Microeconomics is the study of how people choose under conditions of scarcity. Even when material resources are abundant, other important resources are not. At his death, Aristotle Onassis was worth several billion dollars. He had more material resources than he could possibly spend. And yet, in an important sense, he confronted the problem if scarcity much more than most of us will ever have to. He was the victim of a progressive neurological disease in which the body’s immune system turns against itself. For him, the scarcity that mattered was not the money but time, energy, and the physical skill needed to carry out ordinary activities.
2. Time and money are not the only important scarce resources. Every choice involves important elements of scarcity. Scarcity is the condition that results from imbalance between relatively unlimited wants and the relatively limited resources available for satisfying those wants. No society has ever had enough resources to produce the full amount and variety of goods and services its members wanted. Scarcity necessitates choice. If we can’t have everything we would like, we must choose those things we want most. Thus, both individuals and societies must continuously make choices about how to use the scarce resources available to them. The concept of scarcity can be understood more clearly by examining the sub-concepts of economic wants and productive resources.
3. In modern societies people have a wide variety of wants. Food, clothing, shelter, medical care, entertainment and leisure time are wants with major economic implications. Economic wants can be satisfied by the consumption of a good or service. Productive resources consist of what is required to produce the goods and services that people want. There are three basic categories of productive resources: human resources, natural resources and capital goods.
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