Вопрос № 1029269 - Английский язык

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How Do Leaders Lead?
1. Leadership is the process by which a leader, by persuasion or example, induces followers to pursue their objectives for the group. In other words, it is «a process (act) of influencing the activities of an organized group in its efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement» (Stogdill, 1950, p. 3), or a «specialized form of social interaction in which cooperating individuals are permitted to influence and motivate others to promote the attainment of group and individual goals» (Forsyth, 1999, p. 343).
2. From each of these perspectives, leadership involves a «process of influence whereby the leader has an impact on others by inducing them to behave in a certain way» (Bryman, 1996, p. 276). These definitions have in common their emphasis on the view that leadership is linked to the ability to shape the behavior of those within one's group, organization, or society.
3. Furthermore, leadership involves more than being able to obtain changes in behavior that flow from coercion linked to the possession of power or enticement linked to the ability to reward («command and control» models of motivation, see Tyler & Blader, 2000). Leadership involves the possession of qualities that lead others to want to follow the leader's directives, either because they feel obligated to do so, or because they desire to do so. In other words, leadership is a characteristic that is voluntarily conferred upon a person by others and involves the ability of a person to engage the active and willing cooperation of followers. Leadership is, therefore, a process of influence that «depends more on persuasion than on coercion» (Hollander, 1978, pp. 1-2).
4. Of course, the ability to motivate group members, while clearly a key function of leadership, is not all that leadership involves. Leadership is also linked to the ability to set goals for the group («vision»); goals whose attainment facilitates the continued success of the group. In addition, leadership involves being able to structure the organization so that it can effectively attain those goals («implementation»). Further, the numerous theories of leadership that have developed since the earliest history of organized societies articulate a wide variety of other criteria of leadership, making any simple definition of leadership incomplete (Bass, 1981).
(David M. Messick : The Psychology of Leadership / David M. Messick , Roderick M. Kramer. London : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 2005. – P. 163).
Answer the question:
«What ability of a leader is necessary for his group’s successful goal achievement?»

Read the text and do the tasks
How Do Leaders Lead?
1. Leadership is the process by which a leader, by persuasion or example, induces followers to pursue their objectives for the group. In other words, it is «a process (act) of influencing the activities of an organized group in its efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement» (Stogdill, 1950, p. 3), or a «specialized form of social interaction in which cooperating individuals are permitted to influence and motivate others to promote the attainment of group and individual goals» (Forsyth, 1999, p. 343).
2. From each of these perspectives, leadership involves a «process of influence whereby the leader has an impact on others by inducing them to behave in a certain way» (Bryman, 1996, p. 276). These definitions have in common their emphasis on the view that leadership is linked to the ability to shape the behavior of those within one's group, organization, or society.
3. Furthermore, leadership involves more than being able to obtain changes in behavior that flow from coercion linked to the possession of power or enticement linked to the ability to reward («command and control» models of motivation, see Tyler & Blader, 2000). Leadership involves the possession of qualities that lead others to want to follow the leader's directives, either because they feel obligated to do so, or because they desire to do so. In other words, leadership is a characteristic that is voluntarily conferred upon a person by others and involves the ability of a person to engage the active and willing cooperation of followers. Leadership is, therefore, a process of influence that «depends more on persuasion than on coercion» (Hollander, 1978, pp. 1-2).
4. Of course, the ability to motivate group members, while clearly a key function of leadership, is not all that leadership involves. Leadership is also linked to the ability to set goals for the group («vision»); goals whose attainment facilitates the continued success of the group. In addition, leadership involves being able to structure the organization so that it can effectively attain those goals («implementation»). Further, the numerous theories of leadership that have developed since the earliest history of organized societies articulate a wide variety of other criteria of leadership, making any simple definition of leadership incomplete (Bass, 1981).
(David M. Messick : The Psychology of Leadership / David M. Messick , Roderick M. Kramer. London : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 2005. – P. 163).
Define the statement which corresponds to the contents of the text.

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Self-Actualization Needs
1. According to Maslow, the most abstract human need is self-actualization. Maslow defined self-actualization as fully developing and using our unique «talents, capacities, potentialities». To achieve this, we need to refine talents that we have already developed to some degree, while we also cultivate new potentials in ourselves. As humans, we seek more than survival, safety, belonging, and esteem. We also thrive on growth. Each of us wants to cultivate new dimensions of mind, heart, and spirit. We seek to enlarge our perspectives, engage in challenging and different experiences, learn new skills, and test ourselves in unfamiliar territories. To become our fullest selves – to self-actualize – we must embrace the idea that personal growth is an ongoing process – we are always evolving, growing, changing.
2. Communication fosters our personal growth. Therapists can be powerful resources in helping us identify our potentials. Often, therapy assists us in our quest to know, understand, and improve ourselves (Maslow, 1959/1970). In addition, friends, family, co-workers, and teachers can help us recognize promise in ourselves that we otherwise might not see. For me, one such person was my father, who encouraged me to write. He taught me to edit and revise so that I developed skill as a writer. Had he not nurtured this dimension in me, I doubt that writing would be a major part of my life today.
3. Another way in which we seek personal growth is by experimenting with new versions of ourselves. For this, too, we rely on communication. Sometimes we talk with others about ways we want to grow. At other times, we try out new styles of identity without telling anyone what we’re doing. Some people experiment with their identities in online chat rooms, where visual cues won’t expose their real race, sex, age, or other characteristics (Baym, 2002). Lashelle’s commentary stresses the importance of feedback from others in actualizing our potential.
4. Others also help us self-actualize through inspiration and teaching. Mother Teresa was well known for inspiring others to be generous, compassionate, and giving. She had the ability to see the best in others and to help them see it in themselves. Mohandas Gandhi embodied the principle of nonviolent resistance so gracefully and effectively that he inspired thousands of Indians to define themselves as nonviolent resisters. Years later, in the United States, the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. followed Gandhi’s example with his nonviolent resistance of racism. Spiritual leaders such as Buddha, Confucius, Jesus, Moses, and Muhammad also inspire people to grow personally. As we interact with teachers and leaders who inspire us, we may come to understand their visions of the world and of themselves, and we may weave them into our own self-concepts.
(Julia T. Wood : Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters / Julia T. Wood. – The USA : Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2010. – P.14).
Determine the main idea of the text.

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Autonomy in learning is encouraged
1. Learners are given and accept increasing amounts of responsibility for their own learning. This happens in a number of different ways – by collaborating with others, by working on self generated problems, and by the forming and testing of hypotheses, for example.
2. From what we know about constructivism and about pedagogy it might be reasonable to consider that a pedagogy that emphasises communication in its widest sense, and also encourages communal, collaborative and cooperative work that leads to the joint construction of new knowledge and understanding is something which teachers should be encouraged to develop. Indeed, many teachers do use this approach, to some extent or another.
3. A pedagogy that embraces social constructivism and, with the help of internet-based technologies, takes it further and develops the use of information and the scope for social interaction that would not in other ways be easily accessible is a positive, theory based and practically tested approach to teaching, which can be promoted in classrooms in the knowledge that it is a sound and potentially successful approach. This is not to say that all other pedagogies reliant on other theoretical standpoints should be banished. We will see later that there are good examples of effective learning that are predicated on, for example, lone working and semi-behaviourist principles. In these examples, however, the introduction of basic metacognitive thought, the encouragement of a small measure of discussion and the recognition by teachers that the work might be further improved in a variety of ways related to social constructivist ideas point to the probable value of a varied approach to pedagogy, though with a strong emphasis on what is known about constructivism.
4. One point that has been raised over the years is that teachers seem to be more effective when working in ways which, in some way, suit them. That is, teachers who are experienced in and comfortable with a particular way of working tend to be more successful than when they use an approach that they do not have experience of and do not feel comfortable with. This is in no way an argument for a no change scenario, but it must be remembered that in some cases teachers need to gain experience of new approaches gradually, and an approach to teaching that encompasses a variety of approaches and pedagogies is not altogether a bad thing.
(Alan Pritchard : Effective Teaching with Internet Technologies. – The UK : Paul Chapman Publishing, 2007. – P.11)
Determine the main idea of the text.

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Writing a Marketing Plan
1. Marketing is a complicated activity that relies on many different tasks. For this reason, marketers create a marketing plan. A marketing plan is a formal, written document that directs a company’s activities for a specific period of time. It details analysis and research efforts and provides a roadmap for how a product will enter the market, be advertised, and sold. The specifics let managers know their responsibilities, budget, and timelines for completion. A plan helps a company monitor a company’s performance. A small retail business may develop a simple marketing plan for a year, but a large manufacturer would prepare a marketing plan that covers five years.
2. Marketing plans may differ from company to company. However, there are some basic elements that will be found in all marketing plans. Those elements include an executive summary, a situation analysis, marketing goals/objectives, marketing strategies, and implementation, as well as a system for evaluation and control. An executive summary is a brief overview of the entire marketing plan. It briefly addresses each topic in the plan and gives an explanation of the costs involved in implementing the plan. The executive summary may also be used to provide information to people outside the organization, especially those who may be investing in the company or organization.
3. Objectives let everyone know what the marketing plan will accomplish. To be useful, an objective must be single-minded (have only one topic for each objective), specific, realistic, measurable, and have a time frame. Each topic needs to be a separate objective. Specific means that the objective provides enough detail that there can be no misunderstanding. You cannot use, «to be better than a competitor» as an objective because what is «better» to one person may not be to another.
4. Measurable means that the objective includes a way to evaluate it. For example, you cannot simply say you want to increase sales. You need to identify the percentage increase in dollar or unit sales to make that objective measurable. Finally, you must include a time frame, such as in six months, or as compared to last year’s sales. Without a time frame, you would not know if an objective was actually reached.
(Gary E. : Marketing Essentials / E. Gary, Ph. D Clayton. – Interactive Student Edition / E. Gary, Ph. D Clayton. – Glencoe, McGraw-Hill, 2009)
Define the statement which corresponds to the contents of the text.

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Currency School Versus Banking School
1. The Currency School originated from the writings of David Ricardo (1772–1823). It argued that excessive issuing of banknotes was a major cause of inflation. Currency School economists supported the British Bank Act of 1844 (or Peel’s Bank Act, named after Robert Peel (1788–1850)), which prohibited the issuance of banknotes against anything except 100% gold reserves.
2. However, the Act did permit the expansion of demand deposits subject to transfer or withdrawal by check against short term commercial paper of the type approved by the Banking Principle. This paved the way towards fractional reserve banking (that is allowing banks to expand their money supply beyond their gold reserves) and elastic currency (that is expanding money supply as trade increases and vice versa).
3. The Currency School was opposed by the Banking School. Drawing on the writings of Adam Smith (1723–1790), it espoused the Banking Principle or Fullarton Principle (named after John Fullarton (1780–1849)). The Banking School holds that as long as a bank maintains the convertibility of its banknotes into specie (gold), for which it should keep adequate reserves (that is less than 100%). it is impossible for the bank to over-issue its banknotes (when extending credit).
4. The Banking School reasoned that the issuance of gold-backed banknotes would stimulate business activity, would not raise prices, and that the quantity of notes issued would be limited by the needs of trade rather than the desire of the issuing bank. It claimed that noteholders would promptly present for redemption all banknotes issued in excess of the needs of trade (business) under the so-called law of reflux. As a result, a trade-related rise in the money stock would not be inflationary.
(Bennett T. McCallum : Monetary Economics (Theory and Policy) / T. Bennett. – Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1989. – 356 p)
Define the statement which corresponds to the contents of the text.