Вопрос № 1078059 - Английский язык

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Social Norms
1. Each social role carries expected behaviors called norms. Social norms are the accepted standards of behavior of social groups. These groups range from friendship and work groups to nation states. Behavior which fulfills these norms is called conformity, and most of the time roles and norms are powerful ways of understanding and predicting what people will do.
2. There are norms defining appropriate behavior for every social group. For example, students, neighbors and patients in a hospital are all aware of the norms governing behavior. And as the individual moves from one group to another, their behavior changes accordingly.
3. Norms provide order in society. It is difficult to see how human society could operate without social norms. Human beings need norms to guide and direct their behavior, to provide order and predictability in social relationships and to make sense of and understanding of each other’s actions. These are some of the reasons why most people, most of the time, conform to social norms.
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Why do most people conform to social norms?

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Social Norms
1. Each social role carries expected behaviors called norms. Social norms are the accepted standards of behavior of social groups. These groups range from friendship and work groups to nation states. Behavior which fulfills these norms is called conformity, and most of the time roles and norms are powerful ways of understanding and predicting what people will do.
2. There are norms defining appropriate behavior for every social group. For example, students, neighbors and patients in a hospital are all aware of the norms governing behavior. And as the individual moves from one group to another, their behavior changes accordingly.
3. Norms provide order in society. It is difficult to see how human society could operate without social norms. Human beings need norms to guide and direct their behavior, to provide order and predictability in social relationships and to make sense of and understanding of each other’s actions. These are some of the reasons why most people, most of the time, conform to social norms.
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Social norms prevent people from …

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Social Interaction
1. In social science, a social relation or social interaction is any relationship between two or more individuals. Forms of relation and interaction in sociology and anthropology may be described as follows: first and most basic are animal-like behaviors, i.e. various physical movements of the body.
2. Then there are actions – movements with a meaning and purpose. Then there are social behaviors, or social actions, which address (directly or indirectly) other people, which solicit a response from another agent. Next are social contacts, a pair of social actions, which form the beginning of social interactions. Social interactions in turn form the basis of social relations.
3. Symbols define social relationships. Without symbols, our social life would be no more sophisticated than that of animals. For example, without symbols we would have no aunts or uncles, employers or teachers – or even brothers and sisters. In sum, Symbolic integrationists analyze how social life depends on the ways we define ourselves and others. They study face-to-face interaction, examining how people make sense out of life, how they determine their relationships.
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International Relations
1. International Relations (IR) is the study of relationships among countries and the roles of sovereign states. As political activity, international relations dates from the time of the Greek historian Thucydides (460 – 395 BC), and, in the early 20th century, became a discrete academic field within political science.
2. The history of international relations based on sovereign states is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, a stepping stone in the development of the modern state system. Prior to this the European medieval organization of political authority was based on a vaguely hierarchical religious order.
3. Besides political science, the field of International Relations draws intellectual materials from the fields of technology and engineering, economics, history and international law, philosophy, geography and sociology. The scope of International Relations comprehends globalization, state sovereignty, ecological sustainability, economic development and global finance, human security and human rights.
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A Nation’s Wealth and Market Democracy
1. A nation’s wealth can be best determined by looking at its people. It is impossible to rely on any statistics. Economists define wealth as what a person owns, such as stock and real estate, but many people look first to their level of income to see if they are well off. Comparing salaries in different countries, however, is like comparing potato and rice, because the salaries in each country are paid in different currencies. Exchange rates, defined by the foreign exchange market all over the world, reflect the market’s view of each country’s economic and political situation. However, it is difficult to translate salaries by simply using currency exchange rates as the cost of living varies widely from one country to another. We must look at what salaries will actually buy in each country. By choosing a basket of necessary goods and services and calculating their cost in different countries, we can compare the purchasing power or «real» value of salaries from country to country. It gives a more reliable exchange rate, called purchasing power parity (PPP).
2. Judging from recent world experience, a socialist society was not as successful in producing the quality and quantity of goods and services as a market economy organized on the principles of a private free market and private ownership of the means of production. The major defining characteristic of a market economy is that decisions on investment and the allocation of producer goods are mainly made through markets. Market democracy is the culmination of more than three hundred years of economic and political thought.
3. Market democracy not only produces more than a socialist society, but it also allows individuals more liberty to choose how, where, when and for whom they will use their productive services.
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The Sources of Economic Wealth
1. In 1776, new technologies were being invented and applied to the manufacture of cotton and wool, iron, transportation and agriculture in what came to be called «The Industrial Revolution». Adam Smith, the founder of the economic theory, was keenly interested in these events. He wanted to understand the sources of economic wealth. He analyzed the way markets organize economic life and influence economic growth. He showed that a system of prices and markets is able to coordinate people and business without any central direction. He found that two main sources of economic wealth of a nation are the division of labour and free domestic and international markets.
2. Smith defined the division of labour as the source of «the greatest improvement in the productive power of labour». The division of labour became even more productive when applied to creating new technologies. Scientists and engineers, trained in extremely narrow fields, became specialists at inventing. Their powerful skills speeded the advance of technology. Machines started performing repetitive operations faster, and more accurately than people.
3. But, said Smith, the fruits of the division of labour are limited by the extent of the market. To make the market as large as possible, there must be no impediments to free trade both within a country and among countries. Smith argued that when each person makes the best possible economic choice based on self-interest, that choice leads as if by an Invisible Hand to the best outcome for society as a whole.
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