Вопрос № 223366 - Английский язык

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The great surgeon Pirogov was the initiator of the extensive use of anaesthesia during operations. When elsewhere in Europe anaesthesia was still a secret of individual doctors and a loud advertising hullabaloo was raised around one experimental operation made on January 19, 1847, by the obstetrician Simpson, Pirogov was already engaged in large-scale scientific experiments on painless operations.
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Who was the initiator of the extensive use of anaesthesia during operations?

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Searching for ways to save wounded limbs, Pirogov arrived at the idea of the rigid plaster cast. Once during a visit to the studio of a sculptor he knew, Pirogov noticed how fast plaster of Paris hardened when spread on fabric, and he realized what an important aid the plaster of Paris could be for surgeons. Pirogov used this cast for the first time in the Caucasian war as early as in 1847. During the heroic defence of Sevastopol in 1854 -1855, working at field hospitals and under shell fire, Pirogov extensively employed the gypsum cast and resection of joints instead of hasty amputations. The rigid plaster is the pride of Russian surgery.
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What is the pride of Russian surgery?

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The surgical examination includes first the physical examination, then the laboratory and special examination. In the physical examination one usually includes only such observations as can be made by the surgeon with the aid only of five senses and perhaps such a simple apparatus as a stethoscope. It comprises what is often called a bedside examination in contrast to the results of special laboratory, X-ray and other tests.
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What does the surgical examination include?

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In England all the doctors may take part in the Family Doctor System. They may have private practice receiving the pay directly from the patients for their medical advice. Health Service doctors are paid by the government. The pay depends on the number of patients they have served every month. The hospital service includes general and special hospitals, tuberculosis sanatoria, infectious units and all forms of specialized treatment together with the provision of most surgical and medical needs.
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What does the pay depend on?

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Some Americans with low income have no family doctor. They come directly to the hospital for all their medical needs. Here they are cared for by interns, residents and the doctors who work there.
The considerable cost of medical care has led to the development of two new programmes by the Federal Government – Medicare and Medicaid. Medicare provides free medical care for all the Americans over 65. Medicaid provides free medical care for all whose income is below a certain level.
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Where do some Americans with low income come for all their medical needs?

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In the 17th century dentists tried to make false teeth again. The problem, however, was not making the teeth, it was keeping them in place. They had to tie each tooth to the one either side of it. Only rich people could afford false teeth which were usually made of ivory, gold or silver. As more and more people wanted new teeth to the rich so that they could buy food and clothing.
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What was the problem in the 17th century?