Вопрос № 1058607 - Английский язык

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Japanese architecture
1. Japanese architecture has a long history similar to that of other aspects of Japanese culture, characterized by periods of interaction with foreign influences interspersed with long periods of isolation during which unique traits developed. Buildings of the Yayoi periods were mostly agricultural residences, with larger buildings and tombs appearing as an aristocracy developed. Wooden buildings from the Asuka period, preserved in Horyuji Temple, were built in the style of Chinese worship halls. Japanese buildings continued to follow the Chinese style of horizontal buildings with heavy tile roofs supported by timber frames, but developed unique characteristics reflecting Buddhist values.
2. During the Kamakura and Muromachi periods, the samurai expanded the compounds of the aristocracy to include living quarters for military personnel. Eventually, (daimyo) warlords built castles from which to defend their domains. During the Tokugawa era, when there were no military conflicts, many daimyo built large residences and parks in the city of Edo for their families.
3. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan began to build European-style buildings. The widespread destruction of Japanese cities during World War II cleared the way for the construction of large numbers of steel-framed, box-shaped utilitarian buildings, which provoked an adverse reaction during the 1970s, leading to a variety of new styles and architectural treatments incorporating traditional elements into modern designs. Japan’s best-known modern architects include Kenzo Tange, Maekawa Kunio, Fumihiko Maki, Isozaki Arata, and Tadao Ando. 4. Japanese architecture has influenced Western architecture with its emphasis on simplicity, horizontal lines, and flexible spaces. Frank Lloyd Wright was strongly influenced by Japanese spatial arrangements and the concept of interpenetrating exterior and interior space, long achieved in Japan by using walls made of sliding doors that opened onto covered verandas and gardens.
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Japanese warlords built castles to …

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Japanese architecture
1. Japanese architecture has a long history similar to that of other aspects of Japanese culture, characterized by periods of interaction with foreign influences interspersed with long periods of isolation during which unique traits developed. Buildings of the Yayoi periods were mostly agricultural residences, with larger buildings and tombs appearing as an aristocracy developed. Wooden buildings from the Asuka period, preserved in Horyuji Temple, were built in the style of Chinese worship halls. Japanese buildings continued to follow the Chinese style of horizontal buildings with heavy tile roofs supported by timber frames, but developed unique characteristics reflecting Buddhist values.
2. During the Kamakura and Muromachi periods, the samurai expanded the compounds of the aristocracy to include living quarters for military personnel. Eventually, (daimyo) warlords built castles from which to defend their domains. During the Tokugawa era, when there were no military conflicts, many daimyo built large residences and parks in the city of Edo for their families.
3. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan began to build European-style buildings. The widespread destruction of Japanese cities during World War II cleared the way for the construction of large numbers of steel-framed, box-shaped utilitarian buildings, which provoked an adverse reaction during the 1970s, leading to a variety of new styles and architectural treatments incorporating traditional elements into modern designs. Japan’s best-known modern architects include Kenzo Tange, Maekawa Kunio, Fumihiko Maki, Isozaki Arata, and Tadao Ando. 4. Japanese architecture has influenced Western architecture with its emphasis on simplicity, horizontal lines, and flexible spaces. Frank Lloyd Wright was strongly influenced by Japanese spatial arrangements and the concept of interpenetrating exterior and interior space, long achieved in Japan by using walls made of sliding doors that opened onto covered verandas and gardens.
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What is characteristic of Japanese architecture nowadays?

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Manufactured Building Materials
1. One of the building materials used in a construction is a brick. The production of a brick was industrialized in the 19th century. Earlier it was a process of hand-molding. Later it was superseded by «pressed» bricks. It was a mass production by a mechanical extrusion process. In this way clay was squeezed by «pressed» through a rectangular die as a continuous column and sliced to size by a wire cutter. Periodically fired kilns were used. Bricks were moved slowly on a conveyor belt. New methods considerably reduced the cost of a brick. That's why it became one of the constituent building materials of the age.
2. Rapid development of timber technology was in the 19th century in North America. It could be explained by large softwood fir's forests and pine trees. There they were used as industrial methods. Steam- and water-powered sawmills began producing standard-dimension timbers in the 1820s. The production of cheap machine-made nails began in the 1830s. It provided other necessary ingredient – a balloon frame. That made possible a major innovation in building construction.
3. The first example was a warehouse erected in Chicago in 1832 by George W. Snow. There was a great demand for small buildings of alt types settled on North American continent. Light timber frame provided a quick, flexible, inexpensive solution to this problem. Heavy timbers and complex joinery were abandoned in the balloon frame system.
4. The building walls were framed with 5x10-centimetre (2x4-mch) vertical members. They were placed at 40 centimeters (16 inches) from the centre. This supplied a roof and floor Joists, usually 5x25 centimeters (2x10 inches) and placed 40 centimeters (16 inches) apart and were capable of spanning up to six meters (20 feet).
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The Profession of an Architect
1. The architect is a person trained and experienced in the design of buildings and the coordination and supervision of all aspects of the construction of buildings. When the architect designs a structure, he uses the cumulative knowledge of centuries. There are many consultant experts – structural engineers, services engineers and other sub-contracted specialists working to the architect's design. The architect functions now extend into town planning and work activities that need buildings.
2. Town planning or urbanism is the preparation of plans for the regulated growth and improvement of towns or the organization of land and buildings for group living. It is a cooperative process in which architects, economists, engineers, lawyers, landscape architects, doctors, sociologists, surveyors or topographers and other specialists take part. In town planning there are different street patterns: gridiron, radial, ring and functional (or organic).
3. According to the International Union of Architect (IUA or UIA) at present there are more than 800.000 fully qualified architects in the world. In the highly developed countries there is one architect per two or three thousand people. In the developing countries there is only one architect per 500,000 or 1,000,000 people.
4. The architect's sphere of knowledge is constantly expanding. He has to combine art, advanced technology, science and economics in his work. The structure an architect creates should give us pleasure, sense of beauty. The main problem facing the architect today is to avoid any conflict with nature and landmarks of bygone days.
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