Вопрос № 912008 - Английский язык

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Metals began to be widely used as construction materials not so long ago. Before the beginning of the nineteenth century metals played little structural role in the process of building. Mostly they served for joining parts of buildings. The ancient Greeks and Romans are known to use bronze for joining slabs of stone.
It was only in the eighteenth century when the first all-metal structure was built in Europe. It was a cast-iron bridge across the river Severn in England. The strength of the bridge turned out to be so great that now, more than two centuries after its construction, it still carries heavy modern traffic across the Severn.
In the first half of the nineteenth century cast iron and wrought iron were introduced and used for industrial construction in Europe and North America.

Buildings of the 19th century are characterized by the use of new materials and by a great diversity of architectural styles. From the end of the 18th century iron and steel became widely used as alternatives to wood, for by that time many countries experienced shortage of this material. Later the Industrial Revolution brought mass-production of building parts which were manufactured at a factory and then simply assembled at a site.
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When did iron and steel become widely used as alternatives to wood?

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Concrete is produced by combining coarse and fine aggregates, Portland cement, and water. Coarse aggregate is generally gravel or crushed stone, and fine aggregate is sand. Cement, sand, gravel and water are taken in proportional amounts and mixed. The quality of concrete depends mostly on the quality of the cement used. The process of production consists in pouring the mixed components into forms and holding them there until they harden. The process of hardening generally lasts for about 28 days.

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Brick, stone, and timber are known to be the oldest building materials. Bricks belong to artificial (man-made) materials. Their production started in prehistoric times. Since then they have been produced and tested in all types of climate and in many countries. Thousands of years ago the builders in Egypt already knew the advantages of bricks and used them for construction. In those days the production of bricks was quite different from the modern one. Bricks were produced not by burning but by drying in the sun, as it was much sunshine in Egypt all the year round. Brick work was also popular in Rome, there being very few growing forests and as a result little timber there.

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Nails are generally made of plain steel. It is of interest to note that steel used for nails is uncoated steel. Practically, nails are sharpened metal pins driven into wood with a hammer or a mechanical nail gun. There exist different types of nails. Among them common nails and finish nails are the two types most frequently used for fastening. Common nails have flat heads and are used for most structural connections in light framing constructions. The main property of finish nails is that they are headless. Finish nails are used to fasten finish wood work.

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Nowadays suspended ceilings have become a very popular and economical feature in many types of buildings. 1_______. Many of them install and maintain complex mechanical and electrical installations above the ceiling. These installations include air conditioning ducts, water and waste piping and electrical and communications wiring. 2_______. All these ducts and pipes occupy a considerable space in the building. In some of them they may be equal to the amount of their living space.
3_______. Lighting fixtures, loudspeakers, and fire detection devices may also be installed into a ceiling. 4_______.