Вопрос № 1058029 - Английский язык

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The Stage Model of Memory
1. Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer than a half-second for visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory information. We attend to only certain aspects of this sensory memory, allowing some of this information to pass into the next stage - short-term memory.
2. Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are currently aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as the conscious mind. Paying attention to sensory memories generates the information in short-term memory. Most of the information stored in active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds. The amount of information that can be stored in short-term memory can vary. An often cited figure is plus or minus seven items. While many of our short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to this information allows it to continue on the next stage - long-term memory.
3. Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian psychology, long-term memory would be call the preconscious and unconscious. This information is largely outside of our awareness, but can be called into working memory to be used when needed. Some of this information is fairly easy to recall, while other memories are much more difficult to access. The ability to access and retrieve information from long-term memory allows us to actually use these memories to make decisions, interact with others and solve problems.
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How long is information stored in short-term memory?

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The Stage Model of Memory
1. Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer than a half-second for visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory information. We attend to only certain aspects of this sensory memory, allowing some of this information to pass into the next stage - short-term memory.
2. Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are currently aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as the conscious mind. Paying attention to sensory memories generates the information in short-term memory. Most of the information stored in active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds. The amount of information that can be stored in short-term memory can vary. An often cited figure is plus or minus seven items. While many of our short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to this information allows it to continue on the next stage - long-term memory.
3. Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian psychology, long-term memory would be call the preconscious and unconscious. This information is largely outside of our awareness, but can be called into working memory to be used when needed. Some of this information is fairly easy to recall, while other memories are much more difficult to access. The ability to access and retrieve information from long-term memory allows us to actually use these memories to make decisions, interact with others and solve problems.
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The information found in short term memory comes from …

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Intelligence
1. Intelligence has been an important and controversial topic throughout psychology's history. In addition to questions of exactly how to define intelligence, the debate continues today about whether it can be accurately measured. Today's intelligence tests are based largely on the original test devised in the early 1900's by French psychologist Alfred Binet. In order to identify students in need of extra assistance in school, the French government asked Binet to devise a test that could be used to discover which students most needed academic help.
2. Faced with this task, Binet and his colleague Theodore Simon began developing a number of questions that focused on things that had not been taught in school such as attention, memory and problem-solving skills. Using these questions, Binet determined which ones served as the best predictors of school success. He quickly realized that some children were able to answer more advanced questions that older children were generally able to answer, while other children of the same age were only able to answer questions that younger children could typically answer. Based on this observation, Binet suggested the concept of a mental age, or a measure of intelligence based on the average abilities of children of a certain age group.
3. This test, first published in 1916, was called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and soon became the standard intelligence test used in the U.S. The Stanford-Binet intelligence test used a single number, known as the intelligence quotient (or IQ), to represent an individual's score on the test. The term «intelligence quotient» or IQ, was first coined in the early twentieth century by a German psychologist named William Stern. Since that time, intelligence testing has emerged as a widely used tool that has led to the development of many other tests of skill and aptitude.
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Personality
1. In long-term studies of personality, some of the most core parts of personality remain stable throughout life. Three aspects that do tend to change as we age are anxiety levels, friendliness and eagerness for novel experiences. According to researcher Paul T. Costa, there is no evidence our overall personalities change as we grow older. What changes as you go through life are your roles and the issues that matter most to you. People may think their personality has changed as they age, but it is their habits that change, their vigor and health, their responsibilities and circumstances – not their basic personality.
2. In the past, researchers have debated exactly how many personality traits exist. Early researchers such as Allport suggested that there were as many as 4,000 distinct personality traits, while others such as Raymond Cattell proposed that there were 16. Today, many personality researchers support the five-factor theory of personality, which describes five broad personality dimensions that compose human personality: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness.
3. It is very likely that when you think about people's online identities, you might imagine that most people try to present an idealized version of their real selves. After all, in most online situations you get to pick and choose the information you want to reveal. You get to select the most attractive photos of yourself to post and you can edit and revise your comments before you make them. Surprisingly, one study discovered that Facebook profiles are actually quite good at conveying your real personality.
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Parenting Styles
1. In authoritarian parenting style, children are expected to follow the strict rules established by the parents. Failure to follow such rules usually results in punishment. Authoritarian parents fail to explain the reasoning behind these rules. These parents have high demands, but are not responsive to their children. Authoritarian parenting styles generally lead to children who are obedient and proficient, but they rank lower in happiness, social competence and self-esteem.
2. Like authoritarian parents, those with an authoritative parenting style establish rules and guidelines that their children are expected to follow. However, this parenting style is much more democratic. Authoritative parents are responsive to their children and willing to listen to questions. When children fail to meet the expectations, these parents are more nurturing and forgiving rather than punishing. They want their children to be assertive as well as socially responsible, and self-regulated as well as cooperative. Authoritative parenting styles tend to result in children who are happy, capable and successful.
3. Permissive parents, sometimes referred to as indulgent parents, have very few demands to make of their children. These parents rarely discipline their children because they have relatively low expectations of maturity and self-control. Permissive parents are generally nurturing and communicative with their children, often taking on the status of a friend more than that of a parent. Permissive parenting often results in children who rank low in happiness and self-regulation. These children are more likely to experience problems with authority and tend to perform poorly in school.
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An electric capacitor
1. An electric capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical electric capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric; for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Electric capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
2. When there is a potential difference across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal electric capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
3. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence, the capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
4. The capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes.
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