Прочитайте текст и выполните задания. British Architecture in the Period of Ancient History 1. An Al...: ответ на тест 1057950 - Английский язык

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British Architecture in the Period of Ancient History
1. An Alpine race came to the British Isles about 1700 B.C. A characteristic monument of this civilization, primordially rude and primordially majestic, is the so-called Stonehenge, a sanctuary erected on Salisbury Plain about 1100 B.C. or some-what earlier. During the invasion of Celts tribes fortresses were built on hilltops, towns began to appear in the wealthier south-east, though they were at first no more than large groups of wattle-and-clay houses enriched by a sort of fortificated fence. The invasion by the Romans brought the country into contact with the Roman civilization. Major systems of fortifications were constructed as a defense.
2. Then came the occupation of the country by Anglo-Saxon tribes. The Anglo-Saxon had no big cities, only scattered villages and townships, that is, arrangements of the lord’s house with the wattle-and-mud huts of the villagers grouped round it. The huts were primitive affairs, of wood and clay with no chimney over the open hearth but a hole in the roof to let the smoke out and to let the light in. The hearth was usually nothing more complicated than just a large flat stone in the middle of the earthen floor.
3. The lord’s house had a large yard where much of the housekeeping work was done with lots of auxiliary buildings like sheds and barns and the like inside it. It was protected by a stout fence supplemented by a sort of circular fortification, or mound. The interior arrangements were characteristic: there was always a spacious hall where most of the family’s social life was spent, where the lord had his meals with his family and his guests. The light came through narrow holes in the walls covered with oiled linen.
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What was the lord’s house protected by?

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British Architecture in the Period of Ancient History
1. An Alpine race came to the British Isles about 1700 B.C. A characteristic monument of this civilization, primordially rude and primordially majestic, is the so-called Stonehenge, a sanctuary erected on Salisbury Plain about 1100 B.C. or some-what earlier. During the invasion of Celts tribes fortresses were built on hilltops, towns began to appear in the wealthier south-east, though they were at first no more than large groups of wattle-and-clay houses enriched by a sort of fortificated fence. The invasion by the Romans brought the country into contact with the Roman civilization. Major systems of fortifications were constructed as a defense.
2. Then came the occupation of the country by Anglo-Saxon tribes. The Anglo-Saxon had no big cities, only scattered villages and townships, that is, arrangements of the lord’s house with the wattle-and-mud huts of the villagers grouped round it. The huts were primitive affairs, of wood and clay with no chimney over the open hearth but a hole in the roof to let the smoke out and to let the light in. The hearth was usually nothing more complicated than just a large flat stone in the middle of the earthen floor.
3. The lord’s house had a large yard where much of the housekeeping work was done with lots of auxiliary buildings like sheds and barns and the like inside it. It was protected by a stout fence supplemented by a sort of circular fortification, or mound. The interior arrangements were characteristic: there was always a spacious hall where most of the family’s social life was spent, where the lord had his meals with his family and his guests. The light came through narrow holes in the walls covered with oiled linen.
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The Anglo-Saxons had only …

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Early Russian Architecture
1. Russian borrowed its early architecture, like its icon painting, from Byzantium. From the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries early towns were built on defensive sites on high river banks. From afar were visible low white walls with towers, churches with brilliant domes and bell towers. The finest examples of traditional architecture can be seen in the towns of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Suzdal, Bogolyubovo and Sergiev Posad.
2. In Russia, timber has always been the most natural building material. Russian carpenters decorate the diverse structures they were building with beautiful carved decorations above windows and porches. One can see such decorations on log-cabins, fortress towers, huge cathedrals, churches and monasteries.
3. Wooden and masonry architecture developed side by side in medieval Russia, one stimulating and gratifying the love for verticality and slenderness, the other satisfying a yearning for massiveness, monumentality, and lavish decoration in the expression of power and splendour. The few remaining examples of the ancient wooden structures are now in Rostov and also in the museums of wooden buildings in Novgorod, Kostroma and Suzdal. These examples show the skill and gift of their builders to harmonize the building proper with the landscape. Wooden architecture predominates in Northern Russia and in some of the older settlements and towns of the Siberia, such as Tyumen.
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Egyptian Pyramids
1. There have been many different styles or kinds of architecture in the past and there are many different styles today in different parts of the world. The oldest monuments which are met within architecture are the colossal pyramids of Egypt most of which were constructed about 6,000 years ago.
2. The pyramids are large triangular buildings which were placed over the tombs of Egyptian kings. The best known of the pyramids are a group of three built at Giza south of Cairo. The largest of these is 482 feet high. They tell us of the advanced civilization of ancient Egypt which is much spoken about even in our days. It was a country which had expert mathematicians and engineers where astronomy and philosophy were known and studied. The country was rich in hard and durable stone, but poor in timber and metal, so the main material used for construction was granite, and this was the reason for the durability of the pyramids.
3. Large blocks of stone were transported over long distances by land and water, and placed into position with the help of the most primitive equipment. That was done by slaves working for thirty or forty years. All this great amount of work was done, masses of material and a large territory sometimes of about 52,000 square meters were used, only for protecting the body of a dead king and constructing a dwelling place for his happy life in the «other world».
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Cesare Lombroso
1. Professor Lombroso is a criminologist whose views, though not altogether correct, caused a lot of interest and made other people look into the problem of crime in a more scientific way. He is regarded as the father of the scientific study of criminals, or criminology. Lombroso studied at the universities of Padua, Vienna, and Paris, and later he became a professor of psychiatry and forensic medicine, a director of a mental asylum.
2. In an enormous book called The Criminal, he set out the idea that there is a definite criminal type, who can be recognized by his or her appearance. Some of what he said is difficult to believe. For example, he said that left-handed persons have a criminal instinct. Among the things he considered important were the shape of the head, colour of the hair, the eyes, the curve of the chin and forehead and if the ears stick out.
3. Lombroso's theories were widely influential in Europe for a time, but his emphasis on hereditary causes of crime was later strongly rejected in favour of environmental factors. Lombroso tried to reform the Italian penal system, and he encouraged more humane and constructive treatment of convicts through the use of work programs intended to make them more productive members of society.
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Criminal courts
1. Both criminal and civil courts in England and Wales primarily hear evidence and aim to determine what exactly happened in a case. Broadly speaking, the lower courts decide matters of fact and the upper courts normally deal with points of law. About 95% of all criminal eases in England and Wales are tried in the Magistrates’ Courts which deal with petty crimes, that is, less serious ones. In certain circumstances the court may commit an accused person to the Crown Court for more severe punishment, either by way of a fine or imprisonment.
2. Except in cases of homicide, children under 14 and young persons – that is, minors between 14 and 17 years of age – must always be tried summarily, meaning without a jury, by a Youth Court. A Youth Court is a branch of the Magistrates' Court. Indictable offences, that is, more serious ones such as theft, assault, drug dealing, and murder, are reserved for trial in the Crown Court. In almost all criminal cases, the State, in the name of the Crown, prosecutes a person alleged to have committed a crime.
3. In England and Wales, a jury of twelve people decides whether the defendant is guilty of the crime she or he is charged with. The Crown Court may hear cases in circuit areas. From the Crown Court, appeal against conviction or sentence lies to the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal. If leave to appeal is granted by that court, cases may go on appeal to the House of Lords.
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