Прочитайте текст и выполните задания. Landmark Inventions of the Millennium 1. The last 1000 years h...: ответ на тест 56385 - Английский язык

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                                  Landmark Inventions of the Millennium
1. The last 1,000 years have produced an incredible number and variety of scientific and technological breakthroughs – but which of these were the most important? Narrowing a list of the thousands of inventions made since the year 1000 to the ten greatest requires some exact criteria. The qualifying inventions either provided radically new ways to do an important job, or they made possible tasks that were previously unimagined. Their impact was felt, if not right away then eventually, by a large portion of humanity. These developments have made possible significant new technological innovations and scientific discoveries. And finally, they have had an enduring effect on the world.
2. The inventions that meet these criteria, in chronological order, are the compass, the mechanical clock, the glass lens, the printing press, the steam engine, the telegraph, electric power, wireless communications, antibiotics, and the transistor. Missing from this list are many extremely significant technological advances, including the airplane, telephone, automobile, and computer. In many cases these inventions were omitted because they are based on earlier developments or breakthroughs.
3. In considering the ten most significant inventions of the past 1,000 years, a subtle distinction must be made: the difference between «invention» and «discovery» is not as clear as one might think. A discovery can be as simple as the observation of a previously unnoticed phenomenon, while an invention is a human-devised machine, tool, or apparatus that did not previously exist.
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                                  Landmark Inventions of the Millennium
1. The last 1,000 years have produced an incredible number and variety of scientific and technological breakthroughs – but which of these were the most important? Narrowing a list of the thousands of inventions made since the year 1000 to the ten greatest requires some exact criteria. The qualifying inventions either provided radically new ways to do an important job, or they made possible tasks that were previously unimagined. Their impact was felt, if not right away then eventually, by a large portion of humanity. These developments have made possible significant new technological innovations and scientific discoveries. And finally, they have had an enduring effect on the world.
2. The inventions that meet these criteria, in chronological order, are the compass, the mechanical clock, the glass lens, the printing press, the steam engine, the telegraph, electric power, wireless communications, antibiotics, and the transistor. Missing from this list are many extremely significant technological advances, including the airplane, telephone, automobile, and computer. In many cases these inventions were omitted because they are based on earlier developments or breakthroughs.
3. In considering the ten most significant inventions of the past 1,000 years, a subtle distinction must be made: the difference between «invention» and «discovery» is not as clear as one might think. A discovery can be as simple as the observation of a previously unnoticed phenomenon, while an invention is a human-devised machine, tool, or apparatus that did not previously exist.
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Although many kinds of people working in or studying legal affairs are referred to as lawyers, the word really describes a person who has become officially qualified to act in certain legal matters because of examinations he has taken and professional experience he has gained. Most countries have different groups of lawyers who each take a particular kind of examination in order to qualify to do particular jobs. In Japan, a lawyer must decide whether he wants to take the examination to become an attorney, a public prosecutor, or a judge. In England, the decision is between becoming a barrister or a solicitor. Barristers specialize in arguing cases in front of a judge and have the right to be heard, the right of audience, even in the highest courts. They are not paid directly by clients, but are employed by solicitors. Judges are usually chosen from the most senior barristers, and once appointed they cannot continue to practice as barristers. Solicitors do much of the initial preparation for cases which they then hand to barristers, as well as handling legal work which does not come before a court, such as drawing up wills, and dealing with litigation which is settled out of court. Solicitors also have a right of audience in lower courts, but in higher courts, such as the Court of Appeal, they must have a barrister argue their client’s case. In general, it can be said that barrister spends more of his time either in a courtroom or preparing his arguments for the court and a solicitor spends most of his time in an office giving advice to clients, making investigations and preparing documents.
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Modern Architecture
1. Modern architecture is the term universally applied to the style of building, which evolved a number of countries after the First World War as the International Style and which has culminated in the current design of glass, concrete and steel based on module construction presently being erected all over the world.
2. In the early 20th century an instinctive desire of architects to break away from the confusions and contrivances of the 19th century, and their efforts to introduce a style which responded to new social needs and exploited new materials led to the changed appearance of buildings; simple rectangular outlines; avoidance of symmetry; absence of applied ornament; flat roofs and white walls, resulting from the use of reinforced concrete, now the favorite material; large windows, which new structural techniques permitted, but which were encouraged also by the spirit of the times, which believed in opening up the interiors of buildings to light and air.
3. Until the 1930s, Germany was the main center of new architecture because of the presence there of a unifying institution, the Bauhaus, a college of design, which became synonymous with modern teaching methods in architecture.
4. In the years after 1945 the emphasis was on town-planning and housing. This was the era of new towns, vast housing estates. In matters of architectural style, it became less a question of conflict between period revival and modern design than between buildings designed for effect and those that aimed at the creation of a modern vernacular and a humane and harmonious environment. The Modern Movement cannot be said to have had a clear historical end. It always exited concurrently with other ways of designing.
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Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture
1. The architecture of Byzantium, or Eastern Roman Empire, was the culmination of Early Christian architecture. This style can be traced back to the period after 330 BC. The art characteristic of the developed Byzantine Empire had enormous influence on both East and West, spread widely and lasted throughout the Middle Ages until the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453.
2. The dominant Byzantine art was architecture. It was characterized by round arches, elaborate columns, richness in decorative elements and colour. But the chief contribution of the Byzantine style to the architecture of the world was large pendentive-supported dome. Brick was the main material used for the construction of Byzantine churches. It was covered externally with plaster and internally with thin marble facing and mosaics above.
3. The Byzantine style reached a high point in the reign of the Emperor Justinian (527-565). He built and rebuilt 26 churches, many hospitals, bridges aqueducts, and fortress. The outstanding masterpiece of Byzantine church architecture is Hagia or Saint Sophia in Constantinople (now Istanbul). Hagia Sophia remained unique and no attempts were thereafter made by Byzantine Builders to emulate it. Its chief feature is the huge dome, approximately 32.6 m in diameter, rising 56 m above the floor. It’s carried on pendentives. There are also half-domes at two ends which are, in turn, carried by smaller semidomed exedrae. The interior surface of the edifice is richly decorated.
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