Вопрос № 1029301 - Английский язык

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1. Pedagogy is usually defined as the art, or science, of teaching, and sometimes the profession of teaching. For both Gage (1985) and Simon (1994) it is somehow both: «The science of the art of teaching». At the same time, both Woods (1996) and Reynolds (1998) see it as science. Pedagogy refers to the teaching of children and its sister word «andragogy» refers to the teaching of adults.
2. Teachers apply pedagogic principles in a wide range of settings with an equally wide range of groups and individuals who present many varied challenges. Executing a pedagogical approach depends to a large extent on the judgement of the professional teacher and the practical skills that the teacher has learned and practised.
So «pedagogy» has come to refer to the skills and approaches used by teachers to achieve the aims of the lessons that they teach, or the methods which they employ. These methods vary from teacher to teacher and from time to time according to the nature of the subject being taught, or the possible responses of the children being taught. When new facilities or equipment are to be used this can lead to a new or different pedagogical approach being adopted. This has, to some extent, been the case with the advent of ICT in schools and with the use of the internet.
3. Teachers have theories and systems of beliefs concerning teaching, and the way in which learning takes place that influence their approach to teaching. Decisions which teachers take before, during and after teaching a lesson have a deep influence on the learning that takes place in their classrooms.
(Alan Pritchard : Effective Teaching with Internet Technologies. – The UK : Paul Chapman Publishing, 2007. – P.21).
Define the statements which correspond to the contents of the text.

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Autonomy in learning is encouraged
1. Learners are given and accept increasing amounts of responsibility for their own learning. This happens in a number of different ways – by collaborating with others, by working on self generated problems, and by the forming and testing of hypotheses, for example.
2. From what we know about constructivism and about pedagogy it might be reasonable to consider that a pedagogy that emphasises communication in its widest sense, and also encourages communal, collaborative and cooperative work that leads to the joint construction of new knowledge and understanding is something which teachers should be encouraged to develop. Indeed, many teachers do use this approach, to some extent or another.
3. A pedagogy that embraces social constructivism and, with the help of internet-based technologies, takes it further and develops the use of information and the scope for social interaction that would not in other ways be easily accessible is a positive, theory based and practically tested approach to teaching, which can be promoted in classrooms in the knowledge that it is a sound and potentially successful approach. This is not to say that all other pedagogies reliant on other theoretical standpoints should be banished. We will see later that there are good examples of effective learning that are predicated on, for example, lone working and semi-behaviourist principles. In these examples, however, the introduction of basic metacognitive thought, the encouragement of a small measure of discussion and the recognition by teachers that the work might be further improved in a variety of ways related to social constructivist ideas point to the probable value of a varied approach to pedagogy, though with a strong emphasis on what is known about constructivism.
4. One point that has been raised over the years is that teachers seem to be more effective when working in ways which, in some way, suit them. That is, teachers who are experienced in and comfortable with a particular way of working tend to be more successful than when they use an approach that they do not have experience of and do not feel comfortable with. This is in no way an argument for a no change scenario, but it must be remembered that in some cases teachers need to gain experience of new approaches gradually, and an approach to teaching that encompasses a variety of approaches and pedagogies is not altogether a bad thing.
(Alan Pritchard : Effective Teaching with Internet Technologies. – The UK : Paul Chapman Publishing, 2007. – P.11)
The statement «According to the author sometimes teachers need some time to accumulate some experience to accept new approaches to teaching» corresponds to paragraph number …

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1. Clearly, the specific form of independence may matter for inflation. Debelle and Fischer maintain it is goal dependence and instrument independence that would produce low inflation. In fact, such an arrangement may prevent policy makers from changing the objective of policy on a frequent basis, thereby provoking the time inconsistency problem.
2. What is more, even if central bank independence leads to low inflation, the case for independence might be greatly weakened if it is accompanied by a growing real economic instability. However, little relationship was found between measures of real economic activity and central bank independence.
3. In other words, countries with more independence central banks enjoyed lower inflation yet suffered no cost in terms of more volatile real economic activity. Viewed from this point, one may be inclined to see central bank independence as a kind of free lunch.
4. While standard indices of central bank independence were negatively associated  with inflation among developed economies, this was not the case among developing economies. Here, turnover rates of central bank governors were positively correlated with inflation. This is a case, however, in which causality is difficult to evaluate: Was inflation high because of political interference that leads to rapid turnover of central bank officials? Or did central bank officials get fired because they couldn’t keep inflation low?
(Ansgar Belke : Monetary economics in globalised financial markets / A. Belke, T. Polleit. – Springer, 2009. – P.11).
Define the statements which correspond to the contents of the text.

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1. Originally, economists used to think in terms of commodity price rules for issuers of currency to follow. For them the most natural way was to implement a system of property-rights-respecting rules, which imposed on the issuers of currency the obligation to maintain a particular exchange rate between their currencies and one or more commodities.
2. If a bank issues, say, US$1 bills, a commodity standard requires it to ensure that the US$1 bills always exchange for a given amount of a commodity. Because the issuer would maintain a fixed exchange rate between the US$1 bills and a particular quantity (or quantities) of one or more real goods, the nominal price of that good (or goods) would be fixed. Currency issued under these conditions is said to be fully convertible.
3. Commodity standards were the historical norm. The perhaps best remembered commodity standard is the international gold standard. Britain adopted a de facto gold standard in 1717 after the master of the mint, Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), re-valued the silver guinea and formally adopted the gold standard in 1819, when the British Parliament abandoned long-standing restrictions on the export of gold coins and bullion from Britain. The US, though formally on a bimetallic gold and silver standard, switched to gold de facto in 1834 and de jure in 1900. In 1834, the US fixed the price of gold at US$20.67 per ounce. It remained at that level until 1933.
(Ansgar Belke : Monetary economics in globalised financial markets / A. Belke, T. Polleit. – Springer, 2009. – P.49).
Define the statements which correspond to the contents of the text.

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1. The central bank is the monopoly supplier of base money. At the same time, the central bank can, via imposing minimum reserve requirements, exert a (pre-dominant) influence on the demand for central bank money. That said, the central bank is in a (comfortable) position to manage the conditions in the market for central bank money (usually referred to as money market), that is determining the quantity of base money or the interest rate on base money balances.
2. Figure 1.25 shows a simple model of the inter-bank money market (for, say, 1-month money), where the interest rate is determined by the demand for and supply of base money. The demand is determined by minimum reserves, the cash drain and working balances. Supply is determined by the central bank’s regular operations and by autonomous factors (such as, for instance, deposits being shifted from central bank to commercial bank accounts and vice versa).
3. In their money market operations central banks aim to ensure an orderly functioning of the money market, helping credit institutions to meet their liquidity needs in a smooth manner. This is typically achieved by providing regular refinancing to banks and facilities that allow them to deal with end-of-day balances and to cushion transitory liquidity fluctuations. What is more, central banks tend to signal their monetary policy stance to the money market via changing the conditions under which the central bank is willing to enter into transactions with commercial banks.
(Ansgar Belke : Monetary economics in globalised financial markets / A. Belke, T. Polleit. – Springer, 2009. – P.325).
Define the statements which correspond to the contents of the text.

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1. In most countries, price stability has become the primary objective of monetary policy. Central bankers, economists, and other knowledgeable observers around the world agree that price stability both contributes importantly to the economy’s growth and employment prospects in the longer term and moderates the variability of output and employment in the short to medium term.
2. Price stability is considered as a situation in which the economy’s price level does neither increase nor decrease over time; that said, price stability is a situation in which inflation (that is an ongoing increase in the economy’s price level) and deflation (that is a ongoing decline in the economy’s price level) are actually absent, or, to put it differently: price stability is a situation in which the purchasing power of money remains unchanged over time.
3. The idea of preserving the value of money by stabilising the economy’s price level – which is actually typically represented by a consumer price index – is based on the work of Irving Fisher (1867–1947) between 1895 and 1922, in particular on Fisher’s The Making of Index Numbers from 1922. Fisher was one of the first experts on the calculation of price index numbers, and he began the first weekly newspaper publication of a wholesale price index in 1923. Before that, the value of the currency was fixed against a certain amount of gold. In fact, Fisher’s «index regime» has become the «state-of-the-art» concept in monetary policy.
(Ansgar Belke : Monetary economics in globalised financial markets / A. Belke, T. Polleit. – Springer, 2009. – P.531).
Define the statements which correspond to the contents of the text.