Вопрос № 860604 - Английский язык

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The Renaissance
1. This architectural style, the resource of inspiration for many European architects, developed in early 15th century Italy during the rebirth of classical art and learning. It succeeded the Gothic as the style dominant in all of Europe after the mid 16th century into classicism. Knowledge of the classical style in architecture was derived during the Renaissance from two sources: the ancient classical buildings, particularly in Italy, but also in France and Spain and the treatise “De architectura” by the Roman architect Vitruvius. Initially, it was characterized by the use of the classical orders, round arches, and symmetrical composition.
2. The Renaissance architects found a harmony between the proportions of the human body and those of their architecture. There was even a relationship between architectural proportions and the Renaissance pictorial device of perspective. The concern for proportion caused that clear, measured expression and definition of architectural space and mass that differentiates the Renaissance style from the Gothic. Churches, palaces, gardens, and well-organized open, urban spaces are the architectural works most often associated with this time.
3. Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) is said to have created the Renaissance. In the early 15th century he formulated linear perspective, which was to become a basic element of Renaissance art. His basic vocabulary – fluted pilasters carrying entablatures, columns supporting arches, unribbed vaults which are portions of the surface of a sphere – appears in his brilliant work, Ospedade degli Innocenti (1419-51) in France. It was the first building in the Renaissance manner.
4. The Italian Renaissance is assumed to have achieved the highest degree of perfection in the early 16th century. In 1505 Pope Julius II decided to build St. Peter’s Cathedral, the work of many architects, beginning with Bramante, whose ground plan was later changed from a Greek cross to a Latin cross. St. Peter’s Cathedral is the largest church in the high Christian world. It has 29 altars in addition to the high altar. The dome of St. Peter’s Cathedral was built by Michelangelo.
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What source did the architects of the Renaissance period get information on the classical style in architecture from?

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The Renaissance
1. This architectural style, the resource of inspiration for many European architects, developed in early 15th century Italy during the rebirth of classical art and learning. It succeeded the Gothic as the style dominant in all of Europe after the mid 16th century into classicism. Knowledge of the classical style in architecture was derived during the Renaissance from two sources: the ancient classical buildings, particularly in Italy, but also in France and Spain and the treatise “De architectura” by the Roman architect Vitruvius. Initially, it was characterized by the use of the classical orders, round arches, and symmetrical composition.
2. The Renaissance architects found a harmony between the proportions of the human body and those of their architecture. There was even a relationship between architectural proportions and the Renaissance pictorial device of perspective. The concern for proportion caused that clear, measured expression and definition of architectural space and mass that differentiates the Renaissance style from the Gothic. Churches, palaces, gardens, and well-organized open, urban spaces are the architectural works most often associated with this time.
3. Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) is said to have created the Renaissance. In the early 15th century he formulated linear perspective, which was to become a basic element of Renaissance art. His basic vocabulary – fluted pilasters carrying entablatures, columns supporting arches, unribbed vaults which are portions of the surface of a sphere – appears in his brilliant work, Ospedade degli Innocenti (1419-51) in France. It was the first building in the Renaissance manner.
4. The Italian Renaissance is assumed to have achieved the highest degree of perfection in the early 16th century. In 1505 Pope Julius II decided to build St. Peter’s Cathedral, the work of many architects, beginning with Bramante, whose ground plan was later changed from a Greek cross to a Latin cross. St. Peter’s Cathedral is the largest church in the high Christian world. It has 29 altars in addition to the high altar. The dome of St. Peter’s Cathedral was built by Michelangelo.
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Basement Construction Hints
1. Many people find a basement construction as a necessary part of a house building process while others think it does them practically no good. It is largely a matter of what a person is accustomed to. It is true that the volume of space added to a house by a basement is large, and the cost is small, but is the space usable and desirable, or is it largely waste?
2. Perhaps the basement construction is needed when you want a rumpus room, or game room, or den, or something of that kind. Then be sure to make the ceiling at least 8 feet high. It is easy to make a dry basement in well-drained soil or on high ground where a drain tile can be run around the outside of the basement, but in low, wet ground beware of a basement.
3. Should you build one or two stories? That depends largely on your experience and background and the custom of the locality where you live. This question must be settled before you begin to plan your house, as it will have a profound effect on your house plan. First, is your lot large enough to get all the house you want on one floor and still leave room enough for the outdoor activities you contemplate? Do you really want or need an upstairs? Many people like to sleep upstairs, because it gives them a greater feeling of security. If you have always slept upstairs, you feel more exposed on the main floor. By putting high windows in the bedroom you can partly protect yourself from this exposed feeling on the main floor.
4. Most new subdivisions in the West are being built on the one-story plan. Much depends on local conditions and customs. In hot dry sections, where it would seem that basements would be ideal, they are seldom used, while in wet, damp sections, where basement construction may be a problem, they are used extensively. This is not to say that you do not need the storeroom any more, though every house needs a storeroom, complete with shelves, hooks, and every convenience to store and classify all materials and possessions; 12' x 20' in size, the size of a garage, ought to be large enough for most families, if they carefully scrutinize the things they store to make sure they are worth storing and get rid of the things not worth keeping.
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A microwave oven
1. A microwave oven works by passing non-ionizing microwave radiation, usually at a frequency of 2.45 gigahertz (a wavelength of 12.24 centimetres), through the food. Microwave radiation is between common radio and infrared frequencies. Water, fat, and other substances in the food absorb energy from the microwaves in a process called dielectric heating.
2. Many molecules (such as those of water) are electric dipoles, meaning that they have a positive charge at one end and a negative charge at the other, and therefore rotate as they try to align themselves with the alternating electromagnetic field of the microwaves. This molecular movement represents heat which is then dispersed as the rotating molecules hit other molecules and put them into motion.
3. Microwave heating is more efficient on liquid water than on fats and sugars (which have a smaller molecular dipole moment), and also more efficient than on frozen water (where the molecules are not free to rotate).  Microwave heating is sometimes explained as a resonance of water molecules, but this is incorrect: such resonance only occurs in water vapor at much higher frequencies, at about 20 GHz.
4. A common misconception is that microwave ovens cook food from the "inside out". In reality, microwaves are absorbed in the outer layers of food in a manner somewhat similar to heat from other methods. The misconception arises because microwaves penetrate dry non-conductive substances at the surfaces of many common foods, and thus often induce initial heat more deeply than other methods. Depending on water content, the depth of initial heat deposition may be several centimetres or more with microwave ovens, in contrast to infrared or convection heating, which deposit heat thinly at the food surface. Penetration depth of microwaves is dependent on food composition and the frequency, with lower microwave frequencies (longer wavelengths) penetrating better.
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Nanotechnology
1. Nanotechnology is the study of the controlling of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Generally nanotechnology deals with structures of the size 100 nanometers or smaller in at least one dimension, and involves developing materials or devices within that size. Nanotechnology is very diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to investigating whether we can directly control matter on the atomic scale.
2. Molecular nanotechnology describes engineered nanosystems operating on the molecular scale. Molecular nanotechnology is especially associated with the molecular assembler, a machine that can produce a desired structure or device atom-by-atom using the principles of mechanosynthesis.  
3. In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic scale, as all one has to position atoms are other atoms of comparable size and stickiness. Another view, put forth by Carlo Montemagno, is that future nanosystems will be hybrids of silicon technology and biological molecular machines. Yet another view, put forward by the late Richard Smalley, is that mechanosynthesis is impossible due to the difficulties in mechanically manipulating individual molecules.
4. There has been much debate on the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology has the potential to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in medicine, electronics and energy production.
On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as with any introduction of new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials, and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios.
(Encyclopedia Wikipedia)
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Renewable energy
1. Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources. In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. Each of these sources has unique characteristics which influence how and where they are used.
2. The majority of renewable energy technologies are powered by the sun. The Earth-Atmosphere system is in equilibrium so that heat radiation into space is equal to incoming solar radiation, the resulting level of energy within the Earth-Atmosphere system can roughly be described as the Earth's "climate."
3. The hydrosphere absorbs a major fraction of the incoming radiation. Most radiation is absorbed at low latitudes around the equator, but this energy is dissipated around the globe in the form of winds and ocean currents. Wave motion may play a role in the process of transferring mechanical energy between the atmosphere and the ocean through wind stress. Solar energy is also responsible for the distribution of precipitation which is tapped by hydroelectric projects, and for the growth of plants used to create biofuels.
4. While most renewable energy projects and production is large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to small off-grid applications, sometimes in rural and remote areas, where energy is often crucial in human development. Some renewable energy technologies are criticized for being intermittent or unsightly, yet the renewable energy market continues to grow. Climate change concerns, coupled with high oil prices, peak oil, and increasing government support, are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization.  
(Encyclopedia Wikipedia)
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