Вопрос № 912198 - Английский язык

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Enforcing the law
1. Governments have many ways to be sure that citizens obey the law. They explain to the public what the law is and try to provide social support for law and order. They use police forces to investigate crimes and catch criminals. They use courts to complete the investigation of criminal and civil offences and to pass sentences to punish the guilty and deter others. And they try to reeducate and reform people who have broken the law. Which of these is most effective in enforcing the law?
 2. The laws of all countries are in written records – the legal codes of countries, etc. Many people do not know where to find these records. But ignorance of the law is almost never a defence for breaking it. Governments usually expect citizens to know the laws. However, there are many laws, such as those prohibiting theft, assault and dangerous driving, which simply reflect social and moral attitudes to everyday behavior. In such cases a person knows he is breaking the law, even if he doesn't know exactly which law it is.
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What are the main functions of the police in enforcing the law?

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Enforcing the law
1. Governments have many ways to be sure that citizens obey the law. They explain to the public what the law is and try to provide social support for law and order. They use police forces to investigate crimes and catch criminals. They use courts to complete the investigation of criminal and civil offences and to pass sentences to punish the guilty and deter others. And they try to re-educate and reform people who have broken the law. Which of these is most effective in enforcing the law?
 2. The laws of all countries are in written records – the legal codes of countries, etc. Many people do not know where to find these records. But ignorance of the law is almost never a defence for breaking it. Governments usually expect citizens to know the laws. However, there are many laws, such as those prohibiting theft, assault and dangerous driving, which simply reflect social and moral attitudes to everyday behavior. In such cases a person knows he is breaking the law, even if he doesn't know exactly which law it is.
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What are the main functions of the police in enforcing the law?

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The great majority of judges spend at least part of their time hearing civil cases. Many judges sit on courts that hear only civil cases, and some specialize even more narrowly, serving permanently on courts or divisions that handle only probate, domestic relations, or bankruptcy cases.
In most respects, the powers and responsibilities of judges in civil cases are similar to those in criminal cases.
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The great majority of judges spend at least part of their time hearing …

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Attorneys are usually present in all but the most minor civil cases. Their participation is marked by specialization: lawyers generally concentrate in a few areas of the law, so work in most areas is handled chiefly by specialists and quasispecialists. But in a few common and nontechnical areas, such as estates, many lawyers who are not specialists take occasional cases.
Some areas of law handled in civil courts resemble criminal law in the sense that a particular lawyer always represents only one of the two types of parties that contend in court.
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In a few common and nontechnical areas many lawyers who are not specialists take …

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John Cartwright: John Cartwright.
Victor Klimenko: Hello, John. This is Victor Klimenko, from Kiev.
John Cartwright: Hello, Victor. Any problems?
Victor Klimenko: Yes. 1_______?
John Cartwright: Yes, we did.
Victor Klimenko: I’d like to know your reaction to it.
John Cartwright: 2_______, Victor. You’re perfectly correct as to the 3_______. Items 2.5 and 2.6 lacked in the consignment of equipment we sent you. It was overlooked by our controller. We apologize for the oversight. It won’t happen again.
Victor Klimenko: When will you send us these parts?
John Cartwright: This week. By air. We’ll also send you some documents to facilitate customs clearance at your end.
Victor Klimenko: Fine. But what about the packaging? The cover of one of the containers was badly damaged. The equipment in this container was damaged a little too.
John Cartwright: It wasn’t our fault, Victor. The equipment was packed in the required way. You should take this up with the captain of the ship.
Victor Klimenko: We’ve already done it, John. He believes that your packing is to blame.
John Cartwright: I must disagree totally with him. Perhaps you should have been firmer in dealing with him.
Victor Klimenko: Let’s come back to this matter in a couple of days, John. I’ll try to discuss it with the shipowners. But there is one more problem: 4_______. We suffered some losses through this delay. I’d like to remind you that according to the sanctions clause of our contract we have the right to claim compensation.
John Cartwright: I’m afraid you haven’t that right, Victor. This delay was caused by a strike in the Brighton port. We consider this strike to be a force majeure circumstance that had a direct effect on the execution of our liabilities. We did our best to meet the deadline.
Victor Klimenko: I don’t agree, John. English ports are often hit by strikes. You were able to foresee this complication. Moreover, to meet the deadline you could have delivered the equipment to other port.
John Cartwright: We couldn’t have done it owing to circumstances outside our control.
Victor Klimenko: If we don’t reach mutual understanding, our company will have to go through arbitration procedures.
John Cartwright: There’s no need to get aggressive, Victor. There will be a meeting of our top executives at 11 o’clock where your claim will be on the agenda. I’ll try to settle it and ring you back after the meeting.
Victor Klimenko: All right. I’m waiting for your call, John.
John Cartwright: Bye, Victor.

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Mr. Rogers: The next point on the agenda is 1_______. Could you bring us to date on this problem, John?
John Cartwright: Yes. There was 2_______. They want us to pay 3_______.
Mr. Rogers: I don’t think that their claim is well-grounded. The delay was caused by that strike at the port. They won’t win if they refer their claim to arbitration. I think we should reject this claim.
John Cartwright: I’m not sure about that. I’ve just spoken to Mr. Klimenko, the Commercial Director of the company. He’s ignored all my remarks. They’re ready 4_______ to show that they’re serious.
Mr. Rogers: If they do that, we’ll have to get our lawyers in.
John Cartwright: I don’t think it’s a good idea, Mr. Rogers. They are going to place a large order with us next year. If we decline their claim, we may lose this order.
Mr. Rogers: How much do they want us to compensate for the delay?
John Cartwright: Approximately 10,000 pounds.
Mr. Rogers: Perhaps we shall offer them half the sum.
John Cartwright: That’s a good idea. I’ll try to settle it with Mr Klimenko.
Mr. Rogers: Yes. But if they disagree, we’ll have to reject their claim … And negotiate a longer delivery time with them next year.