Вопрос № 912188 - Английский язык

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Interviewer: One hears over and over again that what a modern enterprise needs is a good manager. What do you think of the problem?
Adams: The importance of a good manager can’t be overestimated.
Interviewer: What do you think makes 1_______?
Adams: First of all high standards of professional knowledge and personal conduct.
Interviewer: What personal traits must a good manager have?
Adams: A good manager must be flexible, must have confidence in himself and others, and 2_______. Besides, he must have leading ability.
Interviewer: I see, and what 3_______ should managers have?
Adams: Managers must know how to set up goals and how to achieve them, how to divide work and how to coordinate the activities of individuals.
Interviewer: Management is often called the art of getting things done through people. What’s your point of view on the essence of management?
Adams: The essence of management is to create an environment where individuals, working together, can perform effectively and efficiently. Nowadays, managers must be more skilled in handling people.
Interviewer: Yes, managers must understand that 4_______ are a very important part of any business.

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Mr. Sikorski: You are one of the leading 1_______ on management. 2_______?
Mr. Sage: Basically it’s a functional form of organization with departments for Marketing, Production, Finance and so on.
Mr. Sikorski: If I’m not mistaken, this form is more common for small firms, isn’t it?
Mr. Sage: Yes, it is. As the firms become larger and more complex departmentalization by product, territory or customer may be more effective.
Mr. Sikorski: I see. Organization structure also includes an idea of relationship between the positions and people who hold the positions. What can you say here?
Mr. Sage: 3_______.
Mr. Sikorski: Yes, but as far as I know, the line organization works only for small companies. Large companies need people who are not a part of the chain of command.
Mr. Sage: That’s right. Large companies need people like lawyers, financial and other experts whose jobs are known as staff positions. Large companies use a line and staff organization structure.
Mr. Sikorski: And what span of management is best?
Mr. Sage: You’ve raised the most difficult question I must say. There is no one answer to it. In general, a broad span of management reduces a total number of managers but a narrow span makes possible close supervision.
Mr. Sikorski: What’s the most typical management hierarchy in the US companies?
Mr. Sage: Typically, there are three levels within management. They are supervisory managers, middle managers, and top managers.
Mr. Sikorski: What’s your idea of a 4_______ business?
Mr. Sage: I, personally, believe that business is well managed if everyone has a clear idea of what his or her job is.
Mr. Sikorski: I can’t agree more with you.

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Case law, or common law, is based on the concept of precedent and the doctrine of stare decisis, which means “to stand by decisions and not to disturb what is settled”. This means that the case has established a precedent. The doctrine of stare decisis must be contrasted with the concept of res adjudicata, which means that the “thing has been decided”. Res adjudicata applies when, between the parties themselves, the matter is closed at the conclusion of the lawsuit. The losing party cannot again ask a court to decide the dispute. Stare decisis means that a court of competent jurisdiction has decided a controversy and has, in a written opinion, set forth the rule or principle that formed the basis for its decision, so that rule or principle will be followed by the court in deciding subsequent cases. Likewise, subordinate courts in the same jurisdiction will be bound by the rule of law set forth in the decision. Stare decisis, then, affects persons who are not parties to the lawsuit, but res adjudicata applies only to the parties involved.

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In many countries a distinction is made between private (or civil) and public law. Civil law concerns disputes among citizens within a country, and public law concerns disputes between citizens and the state, or between one state and another.
The main categories of English civil law are:
– Law of Contracts: binding agreements between people (or companies);
– Law of Torts: wrongs committed by one individual against another individual’s person, property or reputation;
– Law of Trusts: arrangements whereby a person administers property for another person’s benefit rather than his own Land Law;
– Probate Law: arrangements for dealing with property after the owner’s death;
– Family Law.
The main categories of public law are:
– Criminal Law: wrongs which, even when committed against an individual, are considered to harm the well-being of society in general;
– Constitutional Law: regulation of how the law operates and of the relation between private citizen and government;
– International Law: regulation of relations between governments and also between private citizens of one country and those of another.

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English law textbooks often describe a contract as an 1_______ which is made between two or more 2_______ and which is binding in law. In order to be binding in law the agreement must include an 3_______ and an acceptance of that offer. The parties must agree to contract on certain terms, that is, they must know what are they agreeing to (but they need not know that their agreement can be described in law as a contract). They must have intended to be legally bound: there would be no contract if, for example, they were just joking when they 4_______ the agreement. And valuable consideration must have been given by the person to whom a promise was made. In this case, consideration is a legal word to describe something a person has given, or done, or agreed not to do, when making the contract.

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One principle of English contract law is that there must be 1_______ and acceptance. An 2_______ to sell something is not normally considered an offer. If I see an add in a newspaper offering to sell a car, and I telephone the advertiser and agree to buy it, the seller is not obliged to sell it to me. This is because the law considers that the 3_______ offer is when I 4_______ the seller asking to buy the car. The seller may then decide whether to accept or reject my offer. This is the reason a store does not have to sell you the goods it displays for sale.