Вопрос № 1029254 - Английский язык

Read the text and do the tasks
How Do Leaders Lead?
1. Leadership is the process by which a leader, by persuasion or example, induces followers to pursue their objectives for the group. In other words, it is «a process (act) of influencing the activities of an organized group in its efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement» (Stogdill, 1950, p. 3), or a «specialized form of social interaction in which cooperating individuals are permitted to influence and motivate others to promote the attainment of group and individual goals» (Forsyth, 1999, p. 343).
2. From each of these perspectives, leadership involves a «process of influence whereby the leader has an impact on others by inducing them to behave in a certain way» (Bryman, 1996, p. 276). These definitions have in common their emphasis on the view that leadership is linked to the ability to shape the behavior of those within one's group, organization, or society.
3. Furthermore, leadership involves more than being able to obtain changes in behavior that flow from coercion linked to the possession of power or enticement linked to the ability to reward («command and control» models of motivation, see Tyler & Blader, 2000). Leadership involves the possession of qualities that lead others to want to follow the leader's directives, either because they feel obligated to do so, or because they desire to do so. In other words, leadership is a characteristic that is voluntarily conferred upon a person by others and involves the ability of a person to engage the active and willing cooperation of followers. Leadership is, therefore, a process of influence that «depends more on persuasion than on coercion» (Hollander, 1978, pp. 1-2).
4. Of course, the ability to motivate group members, while clearly a key function of leadership, is not all that leadership involves. Leadership is also linked to the ability to set goals for the group («vision»); goals whose attainment facilitates the continued success of the group. In addition, leadership involves being able to structure the organization so that it can effectively attain those goals («implementation»). Further, the numerous theories of leadership that have developed since the earliest history of organized societies articulate a wide variety of other criteria of leadership, making any simple definition of leadership incomplete (Bass, 1981).
(David M. Messick : The Psychology of Leadership / David M. Messick , Roderick M. Kramer. London : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 2005. – P. 163).
Answer the question:
«What ability of a leader is necessary for his group’s successful goal achievement?»

Read the text and do the tasks
How Do Leaders Lead?
1. Leadership is the process by which a leader, by persuasion or example, induces followers to pursue their objectives for the group. In other words, it is «a process (act) of influencing the activities of an organized group in its efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement» (Stogdill, 1950, p. 3), or a «specialized form of social interaction in which cooperating individuals are permitted to influence and motivate others to promote the attainment of group and individual goals» (Forsyth, 1999, p. 343).
2. From each of these perspectives, leadership involves a «process of influence whereby the leader has an impact on others by inducing them to behave in a certain way» (Bryman, 1996, p. 276). These definitions have in common their emphasis on the view that leadership is linked to the ability to shape the behavior of those within one's group, organization, or society.
3. Furthermore, leadership involves more than being able to obtain changes in behavior that flow from coercion linked to the possession of power or enticement linked to the ability to reward («command and control» models of motivation, see Tyler & Blader, 2000). Leadership involves the possession of qualities that lead others to want to follow the leader's directives, either because they feel obligated to do so, or because they desire to do so. In other words, leadership is a characteristic that is voluntarily conferred upon a person by others and involves the ability of a person to engage the active and willing cooperation of followers. Leadership is, therefore, a process of influence that «depends more on persuasion than on coercion» (Hollander, 1978, pp. 1-2).
4. Of course, the ability to motivate group members, while clearly a key function of leadership, is not all that leadership involves. Leadership is also linked to the ability to set goals for the group («vision»); goals whose attainment facilitates the continued success of the group. In addition, leadership involves being able to structure the organization so that it can effectively attain those goals («implementation»). Further, the numerous theories of leadership that have developed since the earliest history of organized societies articulate a wide variety of other criteria of leadership, making any simple definition of leadership incomplete (Bass, 1981).
(David M. Messick : The Psychology of Leadership / David M. Messick , Roderick M. Kramer. London : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 2005. – P. 163).
Determine the main idea of the text.

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Self-Actualization Needs
1. According to Maslow, the most abstract human need is self-actualization. Maslow defined self-actualization as fully developing and using our unique «talents, capacities, potentialities». To achieve this, we need to refine talents that we have already developed to some degree, while we also cultivate new potentials in ourselves. As humans, we seek more than survival, safety, belonging, and esteem. We also thrive on growth. Each of us wants to cultivate new dimensions of mind, heart, and spirit. We seek to enlarge our perspectives, engage in challenging and different experiences, learn new skills, and test ourselves in unfamiliar territories. To become our fullest selves – to self-actualize – we must embrace the idea that personal growth is an ongoing process – we are always evolving, growing, changing.
2. Communication fosters our personal growth. Therapists can be powerful resources in helping us identify our potentials. Often, therapy assists us in our quest to know, understand, and improve ourselves (Maslow, 1959/1970). In addition, friends, family, co-workers, and teachers can help us recognize promise in ourselves that we otherwise might not see. For me, one such person was my father, who encouraged me to write. He taught me to edit and revise so that I developed skill as a writer. Had he not nurtured this dimension in me, I doubt that writing would be a major part of my life today.
3. Another way in which we seek personal growth is by experimenting with new versions of ourselves. For this, too, we rely on communication. Sometimes we talk with others about ways we want to grow. At other times, we try out new styles of identity without telling anyone what we’re doing. Some people experiment with their identities in online chat rooms, where visual cues won’t expose their real race, sex, age, or other characteristics (Baym, 2002). Lashelle’s commentary stresses the importance of feedback from others in actualizing our potential.
4. Others also help us self-actualize through inspiration and teaching. Mother Teresa was well known for inspiring others to be generous, compassionate, and giving. She had the ability to see the best in others and to help them see it in themselves. Mohandas Gandhi embodied the principle of nonviolent resistance so gracefully and effectively that he inspired thousands of Indians to define themselves as nonviolent resisters. Years later, in the United States, the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. followed Gandhi’s example with his nonviolent resistance of racism. Spiritual leaders such as Buddha, Confucius, Jesus, Moses, and Muhammad also inspire people to grow personally. As we interact with teachers and leaders who inspire us, we may come to understand their visions of the world and of themselves, and we may weave them into our own self-concepts.
(Julia T. Wood : Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters / Julia T. Wood. – The USA : Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2010. – P.14).
Define the statement which corresponds to the contents of the text.

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Autonomy in learning is encouraged
1. Learners are given and accept increasing amounts of responsibility for their own learning. This happens in a number of different ways – by collaborating with others, by working on self generated problems, and by the forming and testing of hypotheses, for example.
2. From what we know about constructivism and about pedagogy it might be reasonable to consider that a pedagogy that emphasises communication in its widest sense, and also encourages communal, collaborative and cooperative work that leads to the joint construction of new knowledge and understanding is something which teachers should be encouraged to develop. Indeed, many teachers do use this approach, to some extent or another.
3. A pedagogy that embraces social constructivism and, with the help of internet-based technologies, takes it further and develops the use of information and the scope for social interaction that would not in other ways be easily accessible is a positive, theory based and practically tested approach to teaching, which can be promoted in classrooms in the knowledge that it is a sound and potentially successful approach. This is not to say that all other pedagogies reliant on other theoretical standpoints should be banished. We will see later that there are good examples of effective learning that are predicated on, for example, lone working and semi-behaviourist principles. In these examples, however, the introduction of basic metacognitive thought, the encouragement of a small measure of discussion and the recognition by teachers that the work might be further improved in a variety of ways related to social constructivist ideas point to the probable value of a varied approach to pedagogy, though with a strong emphasis on what is known about constructivism.
4. One point that has been raised over the years is that teachers seem to be more effective when working in ways which, in some way, suit them. That is, teachers who are experienced in and comfortable with a particular way of working tend to be more successful than when they use an approach that they do not have experience of and do not feel comfortable with. This is in no way an argument for a no change scenario, but it must be remembered that in some cases teachers need to gain experience of new approaches gradually, and an approach to teaching that encompasses a variety of approaches and pedagogies is not altogether a bad thing.
(Alan Pritchard : Effective Teaching with Internet Technologies. – The UK : Paul Chapman Publishing, 2007. – P.11)
Define the statement which corresponds to the contents of the text.

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Nonverbal communication in the evaluation of personnel
1. Much of personnel work involves the evaluation of workers. Personnel professionals attempt to gather information about the suitability of potential employees via resumes, job applications, and employment tests, but especially through evaluations made in hiring interviews (Eder & Harris, 1999). Nonverbal communication plays an important part in the hiring interview from both the applicant's and the interviewer's perspectives (see Posthuma, Morgeson, & Campion, 2002).
2. First, the savvy applicant engages in careful impression management, thoughtfully monitoring verbal responses to emphasize job-related strengths and hide potential weaknesses (Fletcher, 1989; Gilmore, Stevens, Harrell-Cook, & Ferris, 1999). In addition, the applicant strives to display a positive, interested demeanor. Research on the role of nonverbal cues in the hiring interview suggests that applicants displaying more expressive visual nonverbal behaviors, and cues of nonverbal immediacy, such as greater incidence of eye contact and smiling, more interviewer-focused, outward gestures, and a more direct body orientation (e.g., forward lean), receive more favorable evaluations than non-expressive interviewees (Gifford, Ng, & Wilkinson, 1985; Imada & Hakel, 1977; McGovern & Tinsley,1978; Wexley, Fugita, & Malone, 1975).
3. In addition, paralinguistic cues, such as speech rate and fluency, the absence of speech errors/disturbances, and pitch variability are also positively correlated with evaluations of applicants in interviews (DeGroot & Motowidlo, 1999). Interestingly, static nonverbal cues of physical attractiveness, appropriate business attire, and good grooming also have a positive effect on evaluations of interviewees – typically outweighing the influence of expressive cues (Cann, Siegfried, & Pearce, 1981; Heilman & Saruwatari,1979; Riggio & Throckmorton,   1988; see also Andersen & Bowman, 1999).
4. Despite the impact of nonverbal cues on evaluations of interviewees, it is clear that greater attention is paid to what the applicant is saying, with certain verbal misstatements having a huge impact on whether an interviewee is viewed as «hirable» (Riggio & Throckmorton, 1987, 1988). Because one goal of the interview is to uncover the «truth» about an applicant's suitability for a job, research on deception is applicable to interview settings.
5. Some of the deception research and research on channel inconsistencies in affect suggests that if there is perceived inconsistency in what the individual is saying and the nonverbal behavior accompanying the statement, then the nonverbal channel may be given greater weight than the applicant's words in forming an overall impression of the applicant (DePaulo & Rosenthal, 1979; Mehrabian, 1972; Mehrabian & Wiener, 1967; Vrij, 2000; Vrij & Mann, chap. 4, this volume). Generalizing to the interview setting, this would be consistent with interviewers who report that although the interviewee gave appropriate answers in the interview, «something did not seem right», causing them to doubt the veracity of the interviewee and to give him or her an overall negative evaluation.
(Julia T. Wood : Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters / Julia T. Wood. – The USA : Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2010. – P.121).
Answer the question:
«Who is the knowledge of nonverbal cues in the hiring interview more significant for?»

Read the text and do the tasks
Support
1. We expect friends to support us. There are many ways to show support. Common to the various types of support is the relationship message, «I care about you». Often, we support friends by listening to their problems. The more mindfully we listen, the more support we provide. How we respond also shows support. For example, it’s supportive to offer to help a friend with a problem or to talk through options. Another way we support friends is by letting them know they’re not alone. When we say, «I’ve felt that way, too» or «I’ve had the same problem», we signal that we understand their feelings. Having the grace to accept friends when they err or hurt us is also a way to show support and validate their worth (Burleson, 1984).
2. Another important form of support is study, young adults said the essence of real friendship was «being there for each other» (Secklin, 1991). Increasingly, people rely on friends for support online – being there for them emotionally when they can’t be there physically (Baym, 2002; Carl, 2006). Women and men tend to differ somewhat in how they support friends. Because feminine socialization emphasizes personal communication, women generally provide more verbal emotional support than men do (Becker, 1987; Johnson, 2000; Monsour, 2006). They are likely to talk in detail about feelings, dimensions of emotional issues, and fears that accompany distress. By talking in depth about emotional troubles, women help one another identify and vent feelings and work out problems.
3. Men often provide support to friends through «covert intimacy», a term Swain (1989) coined to describe the indirect ways men support one another. Instead of an intimate hug, men are more likely to clasp a shoulder or playfully punch an arm. Instead of engaging in direct and sustained emotional talk, men tend to communicate support more instrumentally. This could mean giving advice on how to solve a problem, or offering assistance, such as a loan or transportation. Finally, men are more likely than women to support friends by coming up with diversions (Cancian, 1987; Walker, 2004). If you can’t make a problem any better, at least you can take a friend’s mind off it. «Let’s go throw a ball around» provides a diversion.
4. Culture also influences orientations toward friendship. In a study of Japanese and American friendships, Dean Barnlund (1989) found that both groups preferred friends who were similar to them in age and ethnic heritage. Yet Japanese respondents said togetherness, trust, and warmth were the most important qualities in friendship, whereas Americans listed understanding, respect, and sincerity as the top qualities. The differences in rankings reflect distinctions between Japanese and American culture. Interpersonal harmony and collective orientation are central values in Japan, whereas American culture emphasizes individuality, candor, and respect.
(Julia T. Wood : Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters / Julia T. Wood. – The USA : Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2010. – P.257).
Answer the question:
«What are the ways of supporting friends?»