Прочитайте текст и выполните задания Composite Materials 1. Among the oldest and newest of structura...: ответ на тест 884700 - Английский язык

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Composite Materials
1. Among the oldest and newest of structural materials are composite materials. It was discovered many years ago that two or more materials could be used together as one. Later it was proved that such a combination often behaved better than each material alone. Following this principle, clay and straw were combined to make bricks. For centuries composite materials remained virtually untapped. Only then monolithic materials, such as iron, copper were served for needs of an advancing technology. Recently it was a development of technology with coming of reinforced concrete, linoleum, plasterboard and plywood panels.
2. During the 1930s and 1940s light-weight honeycomb structures, machine parts made from compressed metal powders and plastic reinforced with glass fibers became commercial realities. These developments marked the beginning of the modern era of composite engineering materials. It was mentioned growing and using composite materials. Nevertheless, the emergence of a strict discipline and technology of composite materials is barely 20 years old.
3. There are two major reasons for the current interest in composite materials. The first is the demand for materials that will outperform the traditional monolithic materials. The second and more important in the long run, is that composites offer engineers the opportunity to design totally new materials, with the precise combination of properties needed for a specific task. Although new composites are usually more costly than conventional materials, they can be used more sparingly, because of their superior qualities.
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What are characteristics of composite materials?

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Composite Materials
1. Among the oldest and newest of structural materials are composite materials. It was discovered many years ago that two or more materials could be used together as one. Later it was proved that such a combination often behaved better than each material alone. Following this principle, clay and straw were combined to make bricks. For centuries composite materials remained virtually untapped. Only then monolithic materials, such as iron, copper were served for needs of an advancing technology. Recently it was a development of technology with coming of reinforced concrete, linoleum, plasterboard and plywood panels.
2. During the 1930s and 1940s light-weight honeycomb structures, machine parts made from compressed metal powders and plastic reinforced with glass fibers became commercial realities. These developments marked the beginning of the modern era of composite engineering materials. It was mentioned growing and using composite materials. Nevertheless, the emergence of a strict discipline and technology of composite materials is barely 20 years old.
3. There are two major reasons for the current interest in composite materials. The first is the demand for materials that will outperform the traditional monolithic materials. The second and more important in the long run, is that composites offer engineers the opportunity to design totally new materials, with the precise combination of properties needed for a specific task. Although new composites are usually more costly than conventional materials, they can be used more sparingly, because of their superior qualities.
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What are characteristics of composite materials?

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Modern Architecture
1. Modern architecture is the term universally applied to the style of building, which evolved a number of countries after the First World War as the International Style and which has culminated in the current design of glass, concrete and steel based on module construction presently being erected all over the world.
2. In the early 20th century an instinctive desire of architects to break away from the confusions and contrivances of the 19th century, and their efforts to introduce a style which responded to new social needs and exploited new materials led to the changed appearance of buildings; simple rectangular outlines; avoidance of symmetry; absence of applied ornament; flat roofs and white walls, resulting from the use of reinforced concrete, now the favorite material; large windows, which new structural techniques permitted, but which were encouraged also by the spirit of the times, which believed in opening up the interiors of buildings to light and air.
3. Until the 1930s, Germany was the main center of new architecture because of the presence there of a unifying institution, the Bauhaus, a college of design, which became synonymous with modern teaching methods in architecture.
4. In the years after 1945 the emphasis was on town-planning and housing. This was the era of new towns, vast housing estates. In matters of architectural style, it became less a question of conflict between period revival and modern design than between buildings designed for effect and those that aimed at the creation of a modern vernacular and a humane and harmonious environment. The Modern Movement cannot be said to have had a clear historical end. It always exited concurrently with other ways of designing.
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Easy Metal Designs of Building
1. A basic fast construction for buildings is a metal skeleton. There metal vertical racks and horizontal crossbar with the help of bolt connections gather in cross-section frames. The cross-section frames are a system of extensions or communications, giving to design settlement durability fastens. Then roofing, wall runs, frames under windows, doors are established. Thus a bearing skeleton is ready. Further it is possible to use any facing. It can be ferro-concrete, bricklaying, special panels such as «sandwich», any combinations of the specified designs. In a «sandwich» panel every panel consists of two sheets of the zinced iron between which a special heater is placed. The design has no internal skeleton. Its durability is reached due to the certain orientation of fibers.
2. The scope of fast metallic construction is very wide. They are used at the construction of any industrial targets, warehouses, sports complexes. Recently fast construction designs are used in the market. This process makes metallic construction attractive in the field of trading constructions. A cost of a building from a metallic construction is 30-40% less, than on construction of a similar building, using traditional materials.
3. Today a fast metallic construction is a leader among all building designs, first of all, because of its low price. On the other hand, it has the shortest terms of erection. The economy of time can become very significant and essentially important for any customer. Besides the price and terms of assembly, fast metallic constructions have more important advantage. The matter is that a metallic construction is not only quickly gathered, but also can be disassembled fast and without special financial expenses.
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Plastic Materials
1. Plastic materials are not found in nature. Plastic is formed by extrusion or injection molding under very high pressure. It can be molded into any desired shape. Organic plastics are divided into two general groups: thermosetting and thermoplastic. The thermosetting group becomes rigid through a chemical change that occurs when heat is applied. These plastics cannot be remolded. The thermoplastic group remains soft at high temperatures and must be cooled before becoming rigid. This group is not used generally as a structural material.
2. Plastics are rapidly becoming important construction materials because of their great variety, strength, durability and lightness. Plastics are light. The benefits of light weight coupled with good strength and absence of corrosion offer tremendous potential as alternatives to traditional building materials. A given volume of polythene weights less than one-eighth of an equal volume of iron and less than half of the same volume of aluminum.
3. Plastics are used in the industry and in the household: from rockets and electronics to toys and house ware. Plastic products offer many advantages over the materials they replace, such as ease of handling, lower maintenance costs and rapidity of assembly. The insulation and dielectric properties of plastics led to their early use in the electrical engineering industry, which was followed by special application in mechanical engineering.
4. Using of plastics as materials for a construction in the form of sheets, rods or tubes is substituting the conventional metals. Plastics offer a lot of properties for the designs. Plastics have now been developed to such an extent that they can be applied to almost every branch of building, from the laying of foundations to the final coat of paint.
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Plastics have found wide application …

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Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture
1. The architecture of Byzantium, or Eastern Roman Empire, was the culmination of Early Christian architecture. This style can be traced back to the period after 330 BC. The art characteristic of the developed Byzantine Empire had enormous influence on both East and West, spread widely and lasted throughout the Middle Ages until the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453.
2. The dominant Byzantine art was architecture. It was characterized by round arches, elaborate columns, richness in decorative elements and colour. But the chief contribution of the Byzantine style to the architecture of the world was large pendentive-supported dome. Brick was the main material used for the construction of Byzantine churches. It was covered externally with plaster and internally with thin marble facing and mosaics above.
3. The Byzantine style reached a high point in the reign of the Emperor Justinian (527-565). He built and rebuilt 26 churches, many hospitals, bridges aqueducts, and fortress. The outstanding masterpiece of Byzantine church architecture is Hagia or Saint Sophia in Constantinople (now Istanbul). Hagia Sophia remained unique and no attempts were thereafter made by Byzantine Builders to emulate it. Its chief feature is the huge dome, approximately 32.6 m in diameter, rising 56 m above the floor. It’s carried on pendentives. There are also half-domes at two ends which are, in turn, carried by smaller semidomed exedrae. The interior surface of the edifice is richly decorated.
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The character traits of Byzantine architecture are …