Вопрос № 1088194 - Английский язык

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The state
1. The state has an important part to play in making and enforcing law. But what is a state? It is a political unit with a territory that the international community treats as independent, for example the United Kingdom, Barbados or Japan. Law settles how the state is to be governed (its constitution), what duties it owes its citizens, and what duties they owe to one another and to it. The law of the state consists of a system of government, together with a framework for making the life of citizens more secure and for enabling them to flourish.
2. Since each state has its own system of law, there are many legal systems: the law of the United Kingdom, Barbados, Japan, etc. The laws of states differ a bit but also have much in common. Legal systems are called systems because in each state or part of a state with its own laws there are official bodies concerned with the whole of its law. These bodies – the branches of the state – are the legislature, which makes laws, the executive government, which puts laws into effect, and the judges, who decide disputes about the law. These branches of government try to see that the laws do not conflict with one another. In other words, they treat the laws as pans of a system that hangs together.
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The state
1. The state has an important part to play in making and enforcing law. But what is a state? It is a political unit with a territory that the international community treats as independent, for example the United Kingdom, Barbados or Japan. Law settles how the state is to be governed (its constitution), what duties it owes its citizens, and what duties they owe to one another and to it. The law of the state consists of a system of government, together with a framework for making the life of citizens more secure and for enabling them to flourish.
2. Since each state has its own system of law, there are many legal systems: the law of the United Kingdom, Barbados, Japan, etc. The laws of states differ a bit but also have much in common. Legal systems are called systems because in each state or part of a state with its own laws there are official bodies concerned with the whole of its law. These bodies – the branches of the state – are the legislature, which makes laws, the executive government, which puts laws into effect, and the judges, who decide disputes about the law. These branches of government try to see that the laws do not conflict with one another. In other words, they treat the laws as pans of a system that hangs together.
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The aims of law
1. Law has several aims. They are all concerned with making society more stable and enabling people to flourish. The law forbids certain ways of behaving like murder, libel, and requires others, like paying income tax. If people disobey the rules the law threatens them with something unpleasant (other called a sanction), like being punished or having to pay compensation. The idea is that within this framework of do’s and don’ts people can live more securely. If they are more secure they will treat one another better.
2. A second aim is the following. Laws guarantee to people who buy and sell goods, make wills, take employment, form companies and so on that the state will if necessary enforce these arrangements.
3. A third aim is to settle disputes about what the law is and whether it has been broken. Taking these three aims together, we see that law not only threatens those who do what it forbids but promises to protect people’s interests. It imposes restrictions on them but also gives them certain guarantees.
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Professional Responsibility
1. In America the legal profession is regulated primarily by state law, although the federal courts exercise authority over lawyers appearing in litigation before them. The governing regulations include codes of professional ethics; duties and responsibilities imposed by the law of procedure; and common law rules. This body of law is usually called the law of professional responsibility.
2. Each state has a code of professional ethics that defines the lawyer’s responsibilities in representing clients. These provisions cover most aspects of a lawyer's professional responsibilities, including the duties of loyalty to clients and avoidance of conflicts of interest; the duty to maintain the secrecy of confidential information obtained from clients; duties toward opposing parties in litigation and negotiations; responsibilities of supervising lawyers and partners in law firms concerning ethical practice by subordinate lawyers; and duties of advocates to the courts.
3. Much of the communication between attorney and client is subject to privilege (confidential) and may not be divulged to a third party unless the client agrees to it. For the attorney to do otherwise would be considered a serious breach of professional conduct. Attorney-client privilege is so important that an attorney must receive permission from the court to withdraw from representation of a client once proceedings are begun.
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Scotland Yard
1. Though Scotland Yard is in fact the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police Force, the name is almost always associated with the Criminal Investigation Department (C.I.D.) of the Metropolitan Police. The C.I.D. was set up in 1878. The name Scotland Yard comes from the fact that originally there was a palace used by the Scottish kings and their ambassadors when they visited London. Later the palace was replaced by the building of the Metropolitan Police. But the name of Scotland Yard stuck to it.
2. The Criminal Investigation Department (C.I.D.) consists of about 1,500 detectives, of which 1,300 do ordinary detective work. The remaining 200 detectives work in the Special Branch, which in many respects is national first, because it has a staff at every airport and seaport, and secondly, because it is charged with protecting very important persons (VIPs) and dealing with actions which may be regarded as subversive to the state.
3. Other branches of the C.I.D. which operate on a nation wide scale are as follows:
1) the criminal record office, which is the only office in the country hat maintains a central record of all criminals;
2) the fingerprint department which by status, maintains all fingerprint records;
3) the flying squad, which is used all over the country by chief constables when necessary.
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Fingerprints
1. The study of fingerprints is the best means available for identifying individuals. Fingerprinting is a simple and inexpensive means of recording an unchanging characteristic of an individual. Fingerprint records are consulted to determine if there is any prior criminal record. They help in determining the identity of the dead or injured.
2. Fingerprints are perhaps the most common form of physical evidence and certainly one of the most valuable. They relate directly to the final aim of every criminal investigation – the identification of an offender. Fingerprints of the offender are often found at the scene of a crime. However, the prints can be easily destroyed by the first careless act. They are also, in many cases, difficult to find, especially latent prints.
3. So it is necessary that the crime investigator make a thorough search of all surfaces in and around the scene of a crime. Particular attention should be paid to such places as the backs of chairs, table tops, telephone, etc. Valuable help in obtaining latent prints may be given from a person who knows the usual layout of the crime scene. He may point out articles that are out of place or identify objects that may have been brought in by the criminal. The possibility that the weapons of science can be turned against itself by the forging of fingerprints cannot be ignored.
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