Прочитайте текст. During periods of inflation the cost of living increases. Therefore it is necessar...: ответ на тест 1105279 - Английский язык

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During periods of inflation the cost of living increases. Therefore it is necessary to earn more just to maintain your present living standard. How much of an increase is necessary? If the cost of living increased by 10 percent in 1991, a person with a $20,000-a-year income in 1990 would have to earn $22,000 ($20,000 + 10 percent) in 1991 just to stay even. Certain groups, such as those living on fixed retirement pensions, cannot increase their incomes enough to offset the effects of inflation. When this happens their standard of living will decline. To protect people on fixed incomes, Social Security benefits are adjusted for the effects of inflation.
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What happens during periods of inflation?

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A period of rising prices due to an increase in the cost of production is called cost-push inflation. When, for example, labour unions win wage increases greater than the workers’ increases in productivity, management may choose to raise prices to maintain profits. With prices going up, other unions and workers might demand wage increases to keep up with the increased cost of living, and so on, and so on, in an inflationary spiral. Similarly, efforts by producers to increase profits by increasing prices rather than by reducing costs could also trigger an inflationary spiral.
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What happens when labour unions win wages increases?

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There were good managers, of course, long before anyone ever studied management.
The field of management has drawn on sociology, psychology, economics, and other disciplines, and it is in these areas that the manager can learn from study as well as from experience and by trial and error. He still needs plenty of intelligence, common sense, and business judgement – and even the inspired hunch may still take place. But the knowledge of what others have learned about the various aspects of management will help him use his native abilities more effectively.
Future managers will need more education than those of the past. A knowledge of the humanities will be needed for a balanced viewpoint. Scientific knowledge will be required to distinguish between good and bad expert advice, for the area of management is replete with disagreements between experts.

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Some basic characteristics seem to apply to managers in all types of organizations; they include hard work on a variety of activities, preference for active tasks, direct personal relationships.
Almost everything a manager does involves decisions. The reason for making a decision is that a problem exists. In decision making there is always some uncertainty and risk.
Managing is a hard job. There is a lot to be done and relatively little time to do it. The engineer can finish a design on a particular day, and the lawyer can win or lose a case at a certain time. But …

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Marketing can be divided into four main elements that are known as the four P’s: product, price, placement and promotion.
The marketing strategies of determining product, price, placement and promotion are not planned in isolation. Marketing analysts often look at a combination of these four factors. This combination of the four P’s is known as the marketing mix. In order to develop a successful marketing mix researchers first ask two important questions: Who is going to buy the product? What is the potential to sell this product?

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The economy of the Soviet Union had considerable drawbacks. 1_______. Second, for a long period of time investment resources were directed into heavy manufacturing at the expense of consumer or light industry. Third, the pricing system was not based on the market mechanism of supply and demand, and that produced anomalies. For example, the price of bread was below the cost of the wheat used to produce it. 2_______. Fourth, the bureaucratic system and the strong emphasis on meeting targets hindered the introduction of new technologies that could improve productivity. 3_______. Moreover, the state monopoly over production resulted in poor quality of Soviet goods and services. And then, though Soviet economic growth rates were impressive (between the 1950s and 1975, the Soviet gross national product (GNP) increased by 5 percent per year, which was more than in the United States), the country still lagged behind the developed countries. 4_______.