Вопрос № 1088096 - Английский язык

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The European Organization for Nuclear Research
1. The European Organization for Nuclear Research, known as CERN (in French Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire (European Council for Nuclear Research) is an international organization whose purpose is to operate the world’s largest particle physics laboratory. Established in 1954, the organization is based in the northwest suburbs of Geneva on the Franco-Swiss border. CERN has 20 European member states. It employs 2,400 full-time employees, 1,500 part-time employees, and hosts some 10,000 visiting scientists and engineers, representing 608 universities and research facilities and 113 nationalities.
2. Although after the laboratory’s establishment, its work went beyond the study of the atomic nucleus into higher-energy physics, its original aims have remained the same. These are to sponsor and help organize research projects that will lead to a better understanding of the universe, to push to the limit advances in different technologies, to educate the scientists of the future and to encourage international cooperation through science.
3. The main scientific instruments at CERN are particle accelerators and particle detectors. Scientists use accelerators to send beams of particles towards each other at very high energy. They then cause the particles to collide with each other or with stationary targets and observe and record the results with the detectors. CERN is famously home to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which, with a circumference of 27 km, is the largest and most powerful particle accelerator in the world.
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The European Organization for Nuclear Research
1. The European Organization for Nuclear Research, known as CERN (in French Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire (European Council for Nuclear Research) is an international organization whose purpose is to operate the world’s largest particle physics laboratory. Established in 1954, the organization is based in the northwest suburbs of Geneva on the Franco-Swiss border. CERN has 20 European member states. It employs 2,400 full-time employees, 1,500 part-time employees, and hosts some 10,000 visiting scientists and engineers, representing 608 universities and research facilities and 113 nationalities.
2. Although after the laboratory’s establishment, its work went beyond the study of the atomic nucleus into higher-energy physics, its original aims have remained the same. These are to sponsor and help organize research projects that will lead to a better understanding of the universe, to push to the limit advances in different technologies, to educate the scientists of the future and to encourage international cooperation through science.
3. The main scientific instruments at CERN are particle accelerators and particle detectors. Scientists use accelerators to send beams of particles towards each other at very high energy. They then cause the particles to collide with each other or with stationary targets and observe and record the results with the detectors. CERN is famously home to the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which, with a circumference of 27 km, is the largest and most powerful particle accelerator in the world.
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Why is CERN able to facilitate researches into higher-energy physics worldwide?

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Ancient Martian Conditions Could Have Supported Life
1. The American space agency recently reported that the planet Mars once could have supported micro-organisms, extremely small life forms. The announcement came after the agency’s Curiosity rover examined a rock on Mars. It was the first sample of rock powder ever collected and tested on the red planet. Curiosity used a drill on its two-meter long robotic arms to cut into the rock and collect about ten grams of powder. Space agency officials called the drilling, the biggest success for the Curiosity team since the rover landed on Mars in August, 2012.
2. After the drilling was done and the powder collected, the small laboratory on Curiosity began a series of tests. American scientists said the test results led them to believe there was once life on Mars. The rock sample came from an area on Mars called Yellowknife Bay. The area had some of the chemicals required to support life as we know it. They include oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon. Scientists believe Mars was once a warmer, wetter environment before turning into a freezing dry desert. Researchers say the Martian bedrock showed evidence of many periods of wet conditions. And they say there are clay minerals in the rock sample. These minerals are evidence of water.
3. The project is expected to last two years and cost $2.5 billion. Curiosity is not designed to look for microbes that may be alive on Mars today or inspect remains of life forms that no longer exist. Curiosity is the first Mars rover, but not the only one. The American space agency says it plans to send another rover, called Opportunity, to the red planet in 2020. Opportunity would be part of NASA’s plan to explore the Martian surface and atmosphere. The agency hopes to send humans to Mars in about 20 years.
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The History of the Laser
1. Laser is short for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The idea behind lasers is complex. Theodore Maiman succeeded in building the first working laser in 1960. He worked at Hughes Research Laboratories in Malibu, California. Before the laser, scientists developed a similar device: a maser which stands for Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. A maser is basically a microwave version of the laser. Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation similar to, but shorter than, radio waves. The best-known use of masers is in highly accurate clocks.
2. In the 1950s, researchers in the United States and Russia independently developed the technology that made both masers and lasers possible. Charles Townes was a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He and his students developed the first maser. Russians Nicolay Basov and Aleksander Prokhorov did their research in Moscow. Their work led to technology important to lasers and masers. The three men received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964.
3. The physics of the laser may be complex. Still, it is just a story of how electrons interact with light. When a light particle, or photon, hits an electron, the electron jumps to a higher energy state. If another photon strikes one of these high-energy electrons, the electron releases two photons that travel together at the same wavelength. When this process is repeated enough, lots of organized, or coherent, photons are produced.
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Digitizing
1. The term digitizing is often used to describe the scanning of analog sources (such as printed photos or taped videos) into computers for editing, but it also can refer to audio (where sampling rate is often measured in kilohertz) and texture map transformations. In this last case, as in normal photos, sampling rate refers to the resolution of the image, often measured in pixels per inch.
2. Digitizing is the primary way of storing images in a form suitable for transmission and computer processing, whether scanned from two-dimensional analog originals or captured using an image sensor-equipped device such as a digital camera, tomographical instrument such as a CAT scanner, or acquiring precise dimensions from a real-world object, such as a car, using a 3D scanning device.
3. Digitizing is central to making digital representations of geographical features, using raster or vector images, in a geographic information system, i.e., the creation of electronic maps, either from various geographical and satellite imaging (raster) or by digitizing traditional paper maps or graphs (vector).
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Rarefaction
1. Rarefaction is the reduction of an item’s density, the opposite of compression. Like compression, which can travel in waves (sound waves, for instance), rarefaction waves also exist in nature. A common rarefaction wave is the area of low relative pressure following a shock wave.
2. Rarefaction waves expand with time (much like sea waves spread out as they reach a beach); in most gases rarefaction waves keep the same «shape» at all times throughout the wave’s movement: it is a «self-similar expansion». Each part of the wave travels at the local speed of sound, in the local medium. This expansion behaviour is in contrast to the behaviour of pressure increases, which get narrower with time, until they steepen into shock waves.
3. A natural example of rarefaction occurs in the layers of Earth’s atmosphere. Because the atmosphere has mass, most atmospheric matter is nearer to the Earth due to the Earth’s gravitation. Therefore, air at higher layers of the atmosphere is less dense, or rarefied, relative to air at lower layers. Thus rarefaction can refer either to a reduction in density over space at a single point of time, or a reduction of density over time for one particular area.
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