Вопрос № 844718 - Английский язык

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BIOSPHERE

1. The biosphere is the part of the earth, including air, land, surface rocks, and water, within which life occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform. From the broadest biophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. This biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning through a process of biogenesis or biopoesis, at least some 3.5 billion years ago.

2. The term "biosphere" was coined by geologist Eduard Suess in 1875, which he defined as: The place on earth's surface where life dwells.The biosphere's ecological context comes from the 1920s when Vladimir Vernadsky defined ecology as the science of the biosphere. In 1935 Arthur Tansley introduced the term "ecosystem". It is an interdisciplinary concept for integrating astronomy, geophysics, meteorology, biogeography, evolution, geology, geochemistry, hydrology and, generally speaking, all life and earth sciences.

3. Some life scientists and earth scientists use biosphere in a more limited sense. For example, geochemists define the biosphere as being the total sum of living organisms (the "biomass" or "biota" as referred to by biologists and ecologists). In this sense, the biosphere is but one of four separate components of the geochemical model, the other three being lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. The narrow meaning used by geochemists is one of the consequences of specialization in modern science. Some might prefer the word ecosphere, coined in the 1960s, as all encompassing of both biological and physical components of the planet.

4. The Second International Conference on Closed Life Systems defined biospherics as the science and technology of analogs and models of Earth's biosphere; i.e., artificial Earth-like biospheres. Others may include the creation of artificial non-Earth biospheres in the field of biospherics.
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What do all the scientists connect ‘biosphere’ with?

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BIOSPHERE

1. The biosphere is the part of the earth, including air, land, surface rocks, and water, within which life occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform. From the broadest biophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. This biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning through a process of biogenesis or biopoesis, at least some 3.5 billion years ago.

2. The term "biosphere" was coined by geologist Eduard Suess in 1875, which he defined as: The place on earth's surface where life dwells.The biosphere's ecological context comes from the 1920s when Vladimir Vernadsky defined ecology as the science of the biosphere. In 1935 Arthur Tansley introduced the term "ecosystem". It is an interdisciplinary concept for integrating astronomy, geophysics, meteorology, biogeography, evolution, geology, geochemistry, hydrology and, generally speaking, all life and earth sciences.

3. Some life scientists and earth scientists use biosphere in a more limited sense. For example, geochemists define the biosphere as being the total sum of living organisms (the "biomass" or "biota" as referred to by biologists and ecologists). In this sense, the biosphere is but one of four separate components of the geochemical model, the other three being lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. The narrow meaning used by geochemists is one of the consequences of specialization in modern science. Some might prefer the word ecosphere, coined in the 1960s, as all encompassing of both biological and physical components of the planet.

4. The Second International Conference on Closed Life Systems defined biospherics as the science and technology of analogs and models of Earth's biosphere; i.e., artificial Earth-like biospheres. Others may include the creation of artificial non-Earth biospheres in the field of biospherics.
From Wikipedia
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‘Biosphere’ is defined by geochemists as the amount of all living organisms.

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ECOLOGY

1. Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. The environment of an organism includes both physical properties, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as insolation, climate, and geology, and biotic factors, which are other organisms that share its habitat.

2. Ecology is usually considered a branch of biology, the general science that studies living organisms. Organisms can be studied at many different levels, from proteins and nucleic acids, to cells, to individuals, and finally at the level of populations, communities, and ecosystems, to the biosphere as a whole.

3. Ecology is a multi-disciplinary science. Because of its focus on the higher levels of the organization of life on earth and on the interrelations between organisms and their environment, ecology draws heavily on many other branches of science, especially geology and geography, meteorology, genetics, chemistry, and physics.
As a scientific discipline, ecology does not dictate what is right or wrong. However, ecological knowledge such as the quantification of biodiversity and population dynamics have provided a scientific basis for expressing the aims of environmentalism and evaluating its goals and policies.

4. Consider the ways an ecologist might approach studying the life of honeybees:
· the behavioral relationship between individuals of a species is behavioral ecology – e.g., the study of the queen bee, and how she relates to the worker bees and the drones
· the organized activity of a species is community ecology; e.g., the activity of bees assures the pollination of flowering plants. Bee hives additionally produce honey which is consumed by other species, such as bears
· the relationship between the environment and a species is environmental ecology – e.g., bees may die out due to environmental changes.
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THE “FIVE M’S”

1. Production management’s responsibilities are summarized by the “five M’s”: men, machines, methods, materials, and money. “Men” refers to the human element in operating systems. Since the vast majority of manufacturing personnel work in the physical production of goods, “people management” is one of the production manager’s most important responsibilities.

2. The production manager must choose the machines and methods of the company, first selecting the equipment and technology to be used in the manufacture of the product or service and then planning and controlling the methods and procedures for their use. The flexibility of the production process and the ability of workers to adapt to equipment and schedules are important issues in this phase of production management.

3. The production manager’s responsibility for materials includes the management of flow processes—both physical (raw materials) and information (paperwork). The smoothness of resource movement and data flow is determined largely by the fundamental choices made in the design of the product and in the process to be used.

4. The manager’s concern for money is explained by the importance of financing and asset utilization to most manufacturing organizations. A manager who allows excessive inventories to build up or who achieves level production and steady operation by sacrificing good customer service and timely delivery runs the risk that overinvestment or high current costs will wipe out any temporary competitive advantage. Although the five M’s capture the essence of the major tasks of production management, control summarizes its single most important issue. The production manager must plan and control the process of production so that it moves smoothly and meets cost and quality objectives. Process control has two purposes: first, to ensure that operations are performed according to plan, and second, to monitor and evaluate the production plan to see if it can be modified.

‘Production management’, Encyclopaedia Britannica Deluxe Edition, 2004 CD-ROM
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One of the most important responsibilities of the manager is HR management.

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THE AMERICAN ECONOMY AT THE END OF THE 20TH CENTURY

1. The United States entered the 21st century with an economy that was bigger, and by many measures more successful, than ever. Not only had it endured two world wars and a global depression in the first half of the 20th century, but it had surmounted challenges ranging from a 40-year Cold War with the Soviet Union to extended bouts of sharp inflation, high unemployment, and enormous government budget deficits in the second half of the century. The nation finally enjoyed a period of economic calm in the 1990s: prices were stable, unemployment dropped to its lowest level in almost 30 years, the government posted a budget surplus, and the stock market experienced an unprecedented boom. In 1998, America’s gross domestic product exceeded $8.5 trillion.

2. Though the United States held less than 5 percent of the world’s population, it accounted for more than 25 percent of the world’s economic output. Japan, the world’s second largest economy, produced about half as much. And while Japan and many of the world’s other economies grappled with slow growth and other problems in the 1990s, the American economy recorded the longest uninterrupted period of expansion in its history.

3. As in earlier periods, however, the United States had been undergoing profound economic change at the beginning of the 21st century. A wave of technological innovations in computing, telecommunications, and the biological sciences were profoundly affecting how Americans work and play.

4. The United States remains a “market economy.” Americans continue to believe that an economy generally operates best when decisions about what to produce and what prices to charge for goods are made through the give-and-take of millions of independent buyers and sellers, not by government or by powerful private interests. In a free market system, Americans believe, prices are most likely to reflect the true value of things, and thus can best guide the economy to produce what is most needed.
‘Continuity and Change’ http://usinfo.state.gov
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American economy is three times stronger than that of Japan.

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THE “FIVE M’S”

1. Production management’s responsibilities are summarized by the “five M’s”: men, machines, methods, materials, and money. “Men” refers to the human element in operating systems. Since the vast majority of manufacturing personnel work in the physical production of goods, “people management” is one of the production manager’s most important responsibilities.

2. The production manager must choose the machines and methods of the company, first selecting the equipment and technology to be used in the manufacture of the product or service and then planning and controlling the methods and procedures for their use. The flexibility of the production process and the ability of workers to adapt to equipment and schedules are important issues in this phase of production management.

3. The production manager’s responsibility for materials includes the management of flow processes—both physical (raw materials) and information (paperwork). The smoothness of resource movement and data flow is determined largely by the fundamental choices made in the design of the product and in the process to be used.

4. The manager’s concern for money is explained by the importance of financing and asset utilization to most manufacturing organizations. A manager who allows excessive inventories to build up or who achieves level production and steady operation by sacrificing good customer service and timely delivery runs the risk that overinvestment or high current costs will wipe out any temporary competitive advantage. Although the five M’s capture the essence of the major tasks of production management, control summarizes its single most important issue. The production manager must plan and control the process of production so that it moves smoothly and meets cost and quality objectives. Process control has two purposes: first, to ensure that operations are performed according to plan, and second, to monitor and evaluate the production plan to see if it can be modified.

‘Production management’, Encyclopaedia Britannica Deluxe Edition, 2004 CD-ROM
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The design of the product and the process to be used determines the efficiency of resource movement and data flow.