Прочитайте текст и выполните задания. Civil courts 1. In England simple civil actions for example fa...: ответ на тест 1057971 - Английский язык

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Civil courts
1. In England, simple civil actions, for example family matters such as undefended divorce, are normally heard in either the Magistrates’ Courts or the County Courts.
There's no jury in a Magistrates' Court. Family cases may go оn appeal from the Magistrates' Court to the County Courts. The County Court also hears complex first instance civil cases, such as contract disputes, compensation claims, consumer complaints about faulty goods or services, and bankruptcy cases. Juries are now rare in civil actions, so normally the judge considers both law and fact.
2. More complex civil cases, such as the administration of estates and actions for the recovery of land, are heard in the High Court of Justice, which is divided into three divisions: Family, Chancery and Queen's Bench. From the High Court cases may go on appeal to the civil division of the Court of Appeal, which can reverse or uphold a decision of the lower courts. Its decisions bind all the lower civil courts. Civil cases may leapfrog from the High Court to the House of Lords, bypassing the Court of Appeal, when points of law of general public importance are involved.
3. Decisions of the House of Lords arc binding on all other courts but not necessarily on itself. The court of the House of Lords consists of twelve life peers appointed from judges and barristers. The quorum, or minimum number, of law lords for an appeal hearing is normally three, but generally there is a sitting of five judges.
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Law lords are …

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Civil courts
1. In England, simple civil actions, for example family matters such as undefended divorce, are normally heard in either the Magistrates’ Courts or the County Courts.
There's no jury in a Magistrates' Court. Family cases may go оn appeal from the Magistrates' Court to the County Courts. The County Court also hears complex first instance civil cases, such as contract disputes, compensation claims, consumer complaints about faulty goods or services, and bankruptcy cases. Juries are now rare in civil actions, so normally the judge considers both law and fact.
2. More complex civil cases, such as the administration of estates and actions for the recovery of land, are heard in the High Court of Justice, which is divided into three divisions: Family, Chancery and Queen's Bench. From the High Court cases may go on appeal to the civil division of the Court of Appeal, which can reverse or uphold a decision of the lower courts. Its decisions bind all the lower civil courts. Civil cases may leapfrog from the High Court to the House of Lords, bypassing the Court of Appeal, when points of law of general public importance are involved.
3. Decisions of the House of Lords arc binding on all other courts but not necessarily on itself. The court of the House of Lords consists of twelve life peers appointed from judges and barristers. The quorum, or minimum number, of law lords for an appeal hearing is normally three, but generally there is a sitting of five judges.
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What do first instance civil cases include?

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Magna Carta
1. At the heart of the English system are two principles of government – limited government and representative government. The idea that government was not all-powerful first appeared in the Magna Carta, or Great Charter, that King John signed in 1215 under the threat of civil war.
2. Earlier kings of England had issued charters, making promises to their barons. But these were granted by, not exacted from the king and were very generally phrased. Later the tension between the Kings and the nobility increased. In 1199, 1201, and 1205 John's barons had to be promised their rights. It is, therefore, not surprising that Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, directed baronial unrest into a demand for a solemn grant of liberties by the king. The document known as the Articles of the Barons was at last agreed upon and became the text from which the final version of the charter was drafted and sealed by John on June 15, 1215.
3. The Magna Carta established the principle of limited government, in which the power of the monarch, or government, was limited, not absolute. This document provided for protection against unjust punishment and the loss of life, liberty, and property except according to law. It stipulated that no citizen could be punished or kept in prison without a fair trial. Under the Magna Carta, the king agreed that certain taxes could not be levied without popular consent. Although the Magna Carta was originally intended to protect aristocracy and not the ordinary citizens, it came in time to be regarded as a cornerstone of British liberties, and is one of the oldest written constitutional papers.
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Advertising
1. Advertising is one of the largest industries. It is an important means of promoting the goods that are being produced as well as new lines in business. There are specialized firms dealing with advertising, different kinds of mass media (TV, radio, newspapers, cinema, journals, magazines, posters) are used for advertising goods. Special leaflets, booklets and other printed matter about goods may be published for the same purpose. Participation in fairs and exhibitions helps to promote the goods as well.
2. Advertising benefits consumers and the economy in a number of ways: it provides us with information about prices, appearance of certain new goods and services, and their availability; advertising often results in lower prices because by creating mass markets, advertising enables producers to reduce the costs of their products and pass those savings on to the consumers; advertising stimulates competition, and competition benefits all of us; advertising pays most of the cost of magazines and newspapers, and all of the cost of commercial radio and TV.
Advertising helps the economy as a whole by stimulating consumer demand. Consumer spending has a direct effect on the health of the economy. Advertising helps to keep that spending at healthy levels.
3. Not everyone agrees that advertising benefits the economy. Critics list the following points of its disadvantages: the information contained in advertising does not inform and often misleads the consumer; because it costs money to advertise, this cost is added to the price consumers pay; consumers are tempted to spend money for products they do not really need; radio and TV are not really free because the cost of advertising on them is also passed on to the consumer.
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Specialized Accounting
1. Accounting and Bookkeeping is the process of identifying, measuring, recording, and communicating economic information about an organization or other entity. Bookkeeping is the record-keeping aspect of accounting. Accounting principles are applied in the preparation of financial statements and other financial information. Of the various specialized areas of accounting that exist, the three most important are auditing, income taxation, and accounting for non-business organizations.
2. Auditing is the examination, by an independent accountant, of the financial data, accounting records, business documents, and other documents of an organization in order to attest to the accuracy of its financial statements. Large private and public enterprises also maintain an internal audit staff to conduct examinations concerned with operating efficiency and managerial effectiveness.
3. Income taxation is the second specialized area of accounting. Preparing an income tax form consists of collecting information and presenting data in a certain order; therefore, both individuals and businesses frequently hire accountants to determine their taxes.
4. Accounting for non-business organizations, such as universities, hospitals, churches, trade and professional associations is the third area of specialization. These organizations differ from business enterprises in that they do not have a profit orientation, and they have no defined ownership interests. As a result, these organizations have differences in record keeping, in accounting measurements, and in the format of their financial statements.
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Competition and Market Conditions
1. Competition is the economic rivalry that occurs among businesses when producers in a given industry attempt to gain a larger share of the market. Economists use the term «market structure» to describe how competitive specific industries are. Perfect competition and pure monopoly are the opposite extremes of the market structure continuum.
2. Perfect competition has many sellers of the same product, while pure monopoly has only one. Perfect competition exists when there are many buyers and sellers, none of whom control prices. In contrast, pure monopoly exists when a single firm controls the total production or sale of a good or service.
3. The most competitive type of industry is that with perfect competition. Four conditions must be present in the market structure for perfect competition to exist.
First: a particular good or service must have many sellers and buyers available. In addition, each seller must account for just a small share of the overall sales in the market. The goal of these sellers is to attract enough buyers to their businesses to earn a profit.
Second: the good or service offered by one competing firm must be similar or identical to those offered by other firms. In such a situation, buyers may choose freely from the selection.
Third: buyers must have easy access to information on the products and prices available. This information allows buyers to make intelligent choices about which goods to purchase based on price and quality.
Fourth: entrance to and exit from the industry must be relatively easy and inexpensive. In a purely competitive market structure, firms can easily enter a profitable industry or leave an unprofitable one.
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