Вопрос № 916908 - Английский язык

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                                                          Linguistics
1. Linguistics investigates the cognitive and social aspects of human language. The field is divided into areas that focus on aspects of the linguistic signal, such as syntax, semantics, morphology, phonetics and phonology; however, work in areas like evolutionary linguistics and psycholinguistics cut across these divisions.
2. The majority of modern research in linguistics takes a predominantly synchronic perspective (focusing on language at a particular point in time), and a great deal of it aims at formulating theories of the cognitive processing of language. However, language does not exist in a vacuum, or only in the brain, and approaches like contact linguistics, creole studies, discourse analysis, social interactional linguistics, and sociolinguistics explore language in its social context.
3. Sociolinguistics often makes use of traditional quantitative analysis and statistics in investigating the frequency of features, while some disciplines, like contact linguistics, focus on qualitative analysis. Ferdinand Saussure is considered the father of modern linguistics.
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Linguistics
1. Linguistics investigates the cognitive and social aspects of human language. The field is divided into areas that focus on aspects of the linguistic signal, such as syntax, semantics, morphology, phonetics and phonology; however, work in areas like evolutionary linguistics and psycholinguistics cut across these divisions.
2. The majority of modern research in linguistics takes a predominantly synchronic perspective (focusing on language at a particular point in time), and a great deal of it aims at formulating theories of the cognitive processing of language. However, language does not exist in a vacuum, or only in the brain, and approaches like contact linguistics, creole studies, discourse analysis, social interactional linguistics, and sociolinguistics explore language in its social context.
3. Sociolinguistics often makes use of traditional quantitative analysis and statistics in investigating the frequency of features, while some disciplines, like contact linguistics, focus on qualitative analysis. Ferdinand Saussure is considered the father of modern linguistics.
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Hyperinflation
1. Inflation is a sustained increase in the aggregate price level. Economists generally reserve the term hyperinflation to describe episodes where the monthly inflation rate is greater than 50 per cent.
2. Hyperinflations are largely a twentieth-century phenomenon. The most widely studied hyperinflation occurred in Germany after World War I. The ratio of the German price index in November 1923 to the price index in August 1922 – just fifteen months earlier – was 1.02 × 1010. This huge number amounts to a monthly inflation rate of 322 per cent.
3. Hyperinflations are caused by extremely rapid growth in the supply of «paper» money. They occur when the monetary and fiscal authorities of a nation regularly issue large quantities of money to pay for a large stream of government expenditures. In effect, inflation is a form of taxation where the government gains at the expense of those who hold money whose value is declining. Hyperinflations are, therefore, very large taxation schemes.
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World Bank
1. World Bank or International Bank for Reconstruction and Development is a multinational institution set up in 1947 to provide economic aid to member countries – mainly developing countries – to strengthen their economics. The Bank has supported a wide range of long-term investments including infrastructure projects such as roads, telecommunications and electricity supply; agriculture and industrial projects including the establishment of new industries, as well as social, training and educational programmes.
2. The Bank's funds come largely from the developed countries, but it also raises money on international capital markets. The Bank operates according to 'business principles' lending at commercial rates of interest only to those governments it feels are capable of servicing and repaying their debts.
3. In 1960, however, it established an affiliate agency, the International Development Association, to provide low-interest loans to its poorer members. Another affiliate of the World Bank is the International Finance Corporation which can invest directly in companies by acquiring shares.
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Privatization
1. Privatization is the process by which the production of goods or services is removed from the government sector of the economy. This has been done in a variety of ways, ranging from the public sale of shares in a previously state-owned enterprise to the use of private businesses to perform government work under contract.
2. The leader in this innovative strategy was the Thatcher government of Great Britain from 1979 to 1990. Previous governments had tried limited denationalization, which is the restoration of nationalized enterprises to their previous owners, but with limited success. Privatization involved totally new owners. In some cases the state enterprises that were «privatized» had never been in the private sector.
3. Governments all over the world were confronted in the seventies by the problems inherent in state ownership. Because state-owned companies have no profit motive, they lack the incentive that private companies have to produce goods that consumers want and to do so at low cost. An additional problem is that even if they want to satisfy consumer demands, they have no way of knowing what consumers want, because consumers indicate their preferences most clearly by their purchases.
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Demand
1. One of the most important building blocks of economic analysis is the concept of demand. When economists refer to demand, they usually have in mind not just a single quantity demanded, but what is called a demand curve. A demand curve traces the quantity of a good or service that is demanded at successively different prices.
2. The most famous law in economics, and the one that economists are most sure of, is the law of demand. On this law is built almost the whole edifice of economics. The law of demand states that when the price of a good rises, the amount demanded falls, and when the price falls, the amount demanded rises.
3. It is not just price that affects the quantity demanded. Income affects it too. As real income rises, people buy more of some goods (which economists call normal goods) and less of what are called inferior goods. Urban mass transit and railroad transportation are classic examples of inferior goods. That is why the usage of both of these modes of travel declined so dramatically as postwar incomes were rising and more people could afford automobiles.
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