Вопрос № 1058594 - Английский язык

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Henry Ford
1. Modern production methods took a giant leap forward in 1913 when Henry Ford introduced the use of the assembly line in the production of automobiles. In those days, workers simply picked a spot on the factory floor, and assembled the car from the bottom up. As business grew, Ford began manufacturing many of the component parts formerly purchased from suppliers. Typically, the components were put together by one worker who performed all the operations necessary to assemble them. The method was quite costly, and so only the wealthy could afford to buy automobiles in those days.
2. This did not please Henry Ford who wanted to bring the price of automobiles down to the point where most families could afford them. The key to achieving this goal, in Ford's view, was through the improvement of labour productivity. He needed to find a way to 1) limit the number of operations performed by each worker, 2) bring the work to the worker rather than the other way around, and 3) perform each operation in the most efficient sequence he could find. He found what he was seeking in his new creation: the assembly line.
3. Ford's first line, introduced in April 1913, was used to assemble generators. Working in the old way, one worker had been able to put together 25 to 30 generators in a 9-hour day. This translated to something around 20 minutes per assembly. The new line broke the operation into 29 steps performed by individual workers on parts that were brought to them by the steadily moving assembly line. The new process reduced assembly time to an average of 13 minutes per generator.
4. One year later, additional experimentation divided production into 84 operations and reduced assembly time to 5 minutes per generator. Assembly line methods brought the price of automobiles within the reach of millions of American families. Henry Ford was not an economist, but his assembly lines had changed dramatically both American households and its factories.
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Henry Ford
1. Modern production methods took a giant leap forward in 1913 when Henry Ford introduced the use of the assembly line in the production of automobiles. In those days, workers simply picked a spot on the factory floor, and assembled the car from the bottom up. As business grew, Ford began manufacturing many of the component parts formerly purchased from suppliers. Typically, the components were put together by one worker who performed all the operations necessary to assemble them. The method was quite costly, and so only the wealthy could afford to buy automobiles in those days.
2. This did not please Henry Ford who wanted to bring the price of automobiles down to the point where most families could afford them. The key to achieving this goal, in Ford's view, was through the improvement of labour productivity. He needed to find a way to 1) limit the number of operations performed by each worker, 2) bring the work to the worker rather than the other way around, and 3) perform each operation in the most efficient sequence he could find. He found what he was seeking in his new creation: the assembly line.
3. Ford's first line, introduced in April 1913, was used to assemble generators. Working in the old way, one worker had been able to put together 25 to 30 generators in a 9-hour day. This translated to something around 20 minutes per assembly. The new line broke the operation into 29 steps performed by individual workers on parts that were brought to them by the steadily moving assembly line. The new process reduced assembly time to an average of 13 minutes per generator.
4. One year later, additional experimentation divided production into 84 operations and reduced assembly time to 5 minutes per generator. Assembly line methods brought the price of automobiles within the reach of millions of American families. Henry Ford was not an economist, but his assembly lines had changed dramatically both American households and its factories.
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The assembly line made it possible to …

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Prosperity Decade
1. The 1920s were a period of great change in American life that lasted nearly ten years. The First World War had just ended, and a time of gay abandon, economic prosperity, and social change had set in. An unpopular prohibition law made it seem that breaking the law could be acceptable and even commonplace. The tone of the times was one of excitement, of excesses, of new freedom.
2. During the 1920s many people made money by buying shares, or stocks, in different companies. The price of a company's stock depends on business condition. If many buyers want to buy stock in a company, the price of the stock will rise. If many stock owners want to sell their stock, the price will go down. In the 1920s stock prices seemed to go in only one direction: up. There were stories of shoeshine boys and office workers who made fortunes in the stock market in one day.
3. People were making more money than ever before. Companies used advertising to encourage people to buy their products. Advertising became important to business during the 1920s. Another way of encouraging people to buy more goods was called instalment buying. When people bought a thing on the instalment plan, they had to pay only a small part of the total price for the thing. Each month they paid another small some, called an instalment. People paid instalments until they had paid the whole price of the thing they had bought.
4. People were earning a lot of money, and the system of instalment buying seemed a good idea. But some experts warned that too many Americans owed too much money. If people suddenly lost their jobs, they would not be able to pay their debts. Then business would suffer. But few people listened to these warnings. Business was expanding. People kept buying on the instalment plan. The golden years were up to 1929 - and then came Black Tuesday, the day of October 1929 of the inevitable stock market crash, that spanned ten years.
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Japanese architecture
1. Japanese architecture has a long history similar to that of other aspects of Japanese culture, characterized by periods of interaction with foreign influences interspersed with long periods of isolation during which unique traits developed. Buildings of the Yayoi periods were mostly agricultural residences, with larger buildings and tombs appearing as an aristocracy developed. Wooden buildings from the Asuka period, preserved in Horyuji Temple, were built in the style of Chinese worship halls. Japanese buildings continued to follow the Chinese style of horizontal buildings with heavy tile roofs supported by timber frames, but developed unique characteristics reflecting Buddhist values.
2. During the Kamakura and Muromachi periods, the samurai expanded the compounds of the aristocracy to include living quarters for military personnel. Eventually, (daimyo) warlords built castles from which to defend their domains. During the Tokugawa era, when there were no military conflicts, many daimyo built large residences and parks in the city of Edo for their families.
3. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan began to build European-style buildings. The widespread destruction of Japanese cities during World War II cleared the way for the construction of large numbers of steel-framed, box-shaped utilitarian buildings, which provoked an adverse reaction during the 1970s, leading to a variety of new styles and architectural treatments incorporating traditional elements into modern designs. Japan’s best-known modern architects include Kenzo Tange, Maekawa Kunio, Fumihiko Maki, Isozaki Arata, and Tadao Ando. 4. Japanese architecture has influenced Western architecture with its emphasis on simplicity, horizontal lines, and flexible spaces. Frank Lloyd Wright was strongly influenced by Japanese spatial arrangements and the concept of interpenetrating exterior and interior space, long achieved in Japan by using walls made of sliding doors that opened onto covered verandas and gardens.
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Manufactured Building Materials
1. One of the building materials used in a construction is a brick. The production of a brick was industrialized in the 19th century. Earlier it was a process of hand-molding. Later it was superseded by «pressed» bricks. It was a mass production by a mechanical extrusion process. In this way clay was squeezed by «pressed» through a rectangular die as a continuous column and sliced to size by a wire cutter. Periodically fired kilns were used. Bricks were moved slowly on a conveyor belt. New methods considerably reduced the cost of a brick. That's why it became one of the constituent building materials of the age.
2. Rapid development of timber technology was in the 19th century in North America. It could be explained by large softwood fir's forests and pine trees. There they were used as industrial methods. Steam- and water-powered sawmills began producing standard-dimension timbers in the 1820s. The production of cheap machine-made nails began in the 1830s. It provided other necessary ingredient – a balloon frame. That made possible a major innovation in building construction.
3. The first example was a warehouse erected in Chicago in 1832 by George W. Snow. There was a great demand for small buildings of alt types settled on North American continent. Light timber frame provided a quick, flexible, inexpensive solution to this problem. Heavy timbers and complex joinery were abandoned in the balloon frame system.
4. The building walls were framed with 5x10-centimetre (2x4-mch) vertical members. They were placed at 40 centimeters (16 inches) from the centre. This supplied a roof and floor Joists, usually 5x25 centimeters (2x10 inches) and placed 40 centimeters (16 inches) apart and were capable of spanning up to six meters (20 feet).
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The Profession of an Architect
1. The architect is a person trained and experienced in the design of buildings and the coordination and supervision of all aspects of the construction of buildings. When the architect designs a structure, he uses the cumulative knowledge of centuries. There are many consultant experts – structural engineers, services engineers and other sub-contracted specialists working to the architect's design. The architect functions now extend into town planning and work activities that need buildings.
2. Town planning or urbanism is the preparation of plans for the regulated growth and improvement of towns or the organization of land and buildings for group living. It is a cooperative process in which architects, economists, engineers, lawyers, landscape architects, doctors, sociologists, surveyors or topographers and other specialists take part. In town planning there are different street patterns: gridiron, radial, ring and functional (or organic).
3. According to the International Union of Architect (IUA or UIA) at present there are more than 800.000 fully qualified architects in the world. In the highly developed countries there is one architect per two or three thousand people. In the developing countries there is only one architect per 500,000 or 1,000,000 people.
4. The architect's sphere of knowledge is constantly expanding. He has to combine art, advanced technology, science and economics in his work. The structure an architect creates should give us pleasure, sense of beauty. The main problem facing the architect today is to avoid any conflict with nature and landmarks of bygone days.
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