Вопрос № 1078090 - Английский язык

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British Constitution
1. In England there is no one document or fundamental body of law that can be described as a “constitution”. The absence of any such document or of any distinction between public and private law has led to the suggestion that there is no constitution in England. Certainly the English constitution has no existence apart from the ordinary law; it is indeed part of that very law. The Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act, the Bill of Rights, and the Act of Settlement are the leading enactments; but they are in no sense a constitutional code; and, without a host of judicial decisions, other statutes of much less importance, and a mass of custom and convention, these statutes would be unworkable.
2. The sources of English constitutional law are statutes, judicial precedent, textbooks, law books, the writings of historians and political theorists, the biographies and autobiographies of statesmen, the columns of every serious newspaper, the minutiae of every type of government record and publication. This is what is meant by saying the English constitution is «unwritten»: it is not formally enacted; its rules have to be sought out in a dozen fields, not in any one code.
3. Similarly, it is flexible, and here the contrast is with a rigid constitution. There are no special safeguards for constitutional rules; constitutional law can be changed, amended, or abolished just like any rule of private law; there is no field in which Parliament is forbidden to legislate; there are no fundamental or unalterable ideologies and no procedures to prescribe delay or extra processes for constitutional change.
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Why is British constitution considered to be flexible?

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British Constitution
1. In England there is no one document or fundamental body of law that can be described as a “constitution”. The absence of any such document or of any distinction between public and private law has led to the suggestion that there is no constitution in England. Certainly the English constitution has no existence apart from the ordinary law; it is indeed part of that very law. The Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act, the Bill of Rights, and the Act of Settlement are the leading enactments; but they are in no sense a constitutional code; and, without a host of judicial decisions, other statutes of much less importance, and a mass of custom and convention, these statutes would be unworkable.
2. The sources of English constitutional law are statutes, judicial precedent, textbooks, law books, the writings of historians and political theorists, the biographies and autobiographies of statesmen, the columns of every serious newspaper, the minutiae of every type of government record and publication. This is what is meant by saying the English constitution is «unwritten»: it is not formally enacted; its rules have to be sought out in a dozen fields, not in any one code.
3. Similarly, it is flexible, and here the contrast is with a rigid constitution. There are no special safeguards for constitutional rules; constitutional law can be changed, amended, or abolished just like any rule of private law; there is no field in which Parliament is forbidden to legislate; there are no fundamental or unalterable ideologies and no procedures to prescribe delay or extra processes for constitutional change.
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The British constitution is considered to be …

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The Prime Minister
1. The Prime Minister is the most senior officer of Her Majesty’s Government. The full title of the office is Prime Minister, First Lord of the Treasury, and Minister for the Civil Service of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The Prime Minister's main responsibilities include: running the Government; appointing Cabinet Ministers and other ministers; coordinating the activities of the Cabinet and Government Departments; appointing judges, creating Life Peers and making appointments to senior positions in the Church of England; leading the majority party; being the «face» of the government in the UK and abroad.
2. The Prime Minister is technically appointed by the Monarch. The appointment takes place after the results of a General Election indicate which political party wins the majority of seats in the House of Commons. After a General Election, the Queen calls upon the leader of the largest party to officially appoint him to a post of a Prime Minister, who then forms the Government and the Cabinet.
3. In theory, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is a primus inter pares (first among equals) in the British Cabinet. In appointing a Cabinet the Prime Minister generally includes members of parliament who have political bases of their own and who could potentially be a rival of the Prime Minister. However, in practice, a strong Prime Minister can so dominate government that he becomes a «semi-president», and fulfils the leadership role in a country in the same way as presidents do.
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New Civil Code Keeps State Out of Inheritance Coffers
1. The state will no longer inherit the property of almost every second Russian citizen as it has in years past after an inheritance law went into effect broadly expanding the number of relatives recognized as heirs.
2. The law, part of a new Civil Code, permits not only direct relatives – grandparents, parents and children – to claim the property of the deceased, but also cousins and their direct relatives. The law also permits a Russian to leave his possessions to legal entities, local and federal agencies and even foreign organizations and governments.
3. Belongings will only go to the state if no one makes a claim within six months of the owner's death. Earlier, the state inherited property in about one in every two deaths. The new inheritance rules will encourage Russians to write wills – a practice that remains rare – and will finally provide the courts with detailed guidance to deal with inheritance lawsuits.
4. Under the new law, a will can now be written outside of a notary’s office and then delivered there in a sealed envelope by the benefactor to be opened after his or her death. Registration of a will with the public notary currently costs 100-170 rubles ($3 to $6). Where notaries are unavailable, a will is legally binding if signed by two witnesses.
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According to a new Civil Code the state can inherit the property of the deceased if no one makes a claim within …

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Investigation in Russia
1. The investigator and the court base their conclusions concerning the guilt of the accused upon the verification and assessment of the evidence. Evidence in a criminal case is facts, on the basis of which the investigating authorities and the court establish, in accordance with the law, the existence or absence of a socially dangerous act, the guilt of the person committing the act, and other circumstances of importance in making a correct decision in the case.
2. The investigator, the police, the prosecutor and the court establish the facts in the case from the testimony of witnesses, the injured parties, suspects, accused, the opinions of experts, exhibits, the records of the investigation and court proceedings, and other documents.
3. The investigator, having received information that a crime has been committed, inquires as to the persons who may be of help to him in establishing the circumstances of the case, and summons them as witnesses. To obtain exhibits the investigator inspects the scene of the crime and makes searches and seizures. He requests written documents from state establishments and persons in office.
4. The collection of evidence before the trial is performed in the preliminary investigation. In more complicated cases the investigation is carried out by investigators, and otherwise by the police. To obtain evidence, the investigator takes steps to find eye-witnesses of the crime. Upon receiving the summons, a witness must appear before the investigator or in court. If he fails to appear without good reason, he may be forced to by the police and is criminally responsible for failure to appear.
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If a witness fails to appear in court for no valid reason …

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Capital Punishment
1. The ultimate penalty is death (capital punishment). Although most countries still have a death penalty, 62 (including almost every European nation) have abolished it; 18 retain it only for exceptional crimes such as wartime offences; and 27 no longer carry out executions even when a death sentence has been passed. In other words, almost half the countries of the world have ceased to use the death penalty.
2. Supporters of capital punishment believe that death is a just punishment for certain serious crimes. Many also believe that it deters others from committing such crimes. Opponents argue that execution is cruel and uncivilized. Capital punishment involves not only the pain of dying but also the mental anguish of waiting, sometimes for years, to know if and when the sentence will be carried out. Opponents also argue that there is no evidence that it deters people from committing murder any more than imprisonment does. A further argument is that, should a mistake be made, it is too late to rectify it once the execution has taken place.
3. As the debate about capital punishment continues, the phenomenon of death row (people sentenced but still alive) increases. The debate also involves the question of what punishment is for. Is the main aim to deter? This was certainly the case in the 18th century England when the penalty for theft was supposed to frighten people from stealing and compensate for inabilities to detect and catch thieves. Is it revenge or retribution? Is it to keep criminals out of society? Or is it to reform and rehabilitate them?
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Opponents of death penalty believe that it …