Вопрос № 1072631 - Английский язык

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Early Russian Architecture
1. Russian borrowed its early architecture, like its icon painting, from Byzantium. From the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries early towns were built on defensive sites on high river banks. From afar were visible low white walls with towers, churches with brilliant domes and bell towers. The finest examples of traditional architecture can be seen in the towns of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Suzdal, Bogolyubovo and Sergiev Posad.
2. In Russia, timber has always been the most natural building material. Russian carpenters decorate the diverse structures they were building with beautiful carved decorations above windows and porches. One can see such decorations on log-cabins, fortress towers, huge cathedrals, churches and monasteries.
3. Wooden and masonry architecture developed side by side in medieval Russia, one stimulating and gratifying the love for verticality and slenderness, the other satisfying a yearning for massiveness, monumentality, and lavish decoration in the expression of power and splendour. The few remaining examples of the ancient wooden structures are now in Rostov and also in the museums of wooden buildings in Novgorod, Kostroma and Suzdal. These examples show the skill and gift of their builders to harmonize the building proper with the landscape. Wooden architecture predominates in Northern Russia and in some of the older settlements and towns of the Siberia, such as Tyumen.
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Wood used for construction purposes is usually changed into laminated wood or wood panel products. Large structural wooden members are produced by glueing small strips of wood together.
Wood in panel form is more advantageous for many building purposes than board. Why is it so? First of all, because wood panels are much easier to install than boards. They require much less labour for the process of installation. Besides, swelling and splitting in panels are greatly decreased compared with boards. As to plywood panels, they are made up of thin wooden veneers glued together. It is of great importance to note that when wooden structures are designed the future stresses of their structural members must be predetermined.

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The plastics that were unknown only a few decades ago have become extremely important and widely used for construction purposes. The plastics being used nowadays possess many advantages. First of all they are extremely light and their tensile strength is greater than that of many metals. Besides, they are weather-resistant and resistant to attacks by industrial fumes and to a great number of chemical substances. Some of the examples of the constructive use of plastic materials have been domes housing radar antennae and electronic equipment. Such domes built in America and Canada are as high as 116 feet.
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The function of a cladding is to prevent the passage of air between indoors and outdoors of a 1_______. For this purpose it is necessary to regulate air velocities within the building. Even small air leaks are extremely 2_______. Why is it so?
It is because air leaks 3_______ water through the wall, allow vapor to condensate inside the walls, and allow noises to penetrate the 4_______ of the building from outside.

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The first concrete bridge of F. Hennebique was designed and constructed in 1899. 1_______ his name was associated with bridges all over the world, and, by 1906, he had designed 700 bridges. And by 1920 he had completed 3600 2_______.
F. Hennebique travelled all over Europe setting up his agencies and firms. Contracts with his numerous clients had doubled each year. He also 3_______ reservoirs and by that time there were 7500 of them completed. He built the enormous sports stadium in Turin covering an 4_______ of 11 ha, with places for 70000 spectators.

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The function of the cladding of a building is to control the passage of light. Especially important is controlling the passage of 1_______.
It is a well-known fact that sunlight is heat that may be harmful or 2________. It can be useful for illumination but harmful if it 3_______ glare within a building. Besides, sunlight includes ultraviolet wavelengths that can be harmful for human skin. They may also cause harm to interior 4_______.