Прочитайте текст и найдите соответствующий перевод подчеркнутого выражения. There were good managers...: ответ на тест 1072666 - Английский язык

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There were good managers, of course, long before anyone ever studied management.
The field of management has drawn on sociology, psychology, economics, and other disciplines, and it is in these areas that the manager can learn from study as well as from experience and by trial and error. He still needs plenty of intelligence, common sense, and business judgement – and even the inspired hunch may still take place. But the knowledge of what others have learned about the various aspects of management will help him use his native abilities more effectively.
Future managers will need more education than those of the past. A knowledge of the humanities will be needed for a balanced viewpoint. Scientific knowledge will be required to distinguish between good and bad expert advice, for the area of management is replete with disagreements between experts.

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What is management? Are there certain functions that all managers perform regardless of whether they’re company presidents, managers of departments, or supervisors of department sections?
If we watch managers at work, we might conclude that their jobs differ so widely in content and scope that no generalizations about management are possible.
One reason for this is that many managers, even top managers, do work that is not management at all. A simple example is the sales manager who actually sells and perhaps has a set of customers of his own, in addition to managing the sales force. Then there’s the “working foreman” or leadman who works right along with the group he’s supervising. In these cases the managers are actually spending only part of their time on management itself.
A second reason why it may be difficult to identify the functions common to all managers is that the scope of their activities differs widely.

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Some basic characteristics seem to apply to managers in all types of organizations; they include hard work on a variety of activities, preference for active tasks, direct personal relationships.
Almost everything a manager does involves decisions. The reason for making a decision is that a problem exists. In decision making there is always some uncertainty and risk.
Managing is a hard job. There is a lot to be done and relatively little time to do it. The engineer can finish a design on a particular day, and the lawyer can win or lose a case at a certain time. But …

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Marketing can be divided into four main elements that are known as the four P’s: product, price, placement and promotion.
The marketing strategies of determining product, price, placement and promotion are not planned in isolation. Marketing analysts often look at a combination of these four factors. This combination of the four P’s is known as the marketing mix. In order to develop a successful marketing mix researchers first ask two important questions: Who is going to buy the product? What is the potential to sell this product?

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The economy of the Soviet Union had considerable drawbacks. 1_______. Second, for a long period of time investment resources were directed into heavy manufacturing at the expense of consumer or light industry. Third, the pricing system was not based on the market mechanism of supply and demand, and that produced anomalies. For example, the price of bread was below the cost of the wheat used to produce it. 2_______. Fourth, the bureaucratic system and the strong emphasis on meeting targets hindered the introduction of new technologies that could improve productivity. 3_______. Moreover, the state monopoly over production resulted in poor quality of Soviet goods and services. And then, though Soviet economic growth rates were impressive (between the 1950s and 1975, the Soviet gross national product (GNP) increased by 5 percent per year, which was more than in the United States), the country still lagged behind the developed countries. 4_______.

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The Japanese work hard to identify attractive global markets. They look for industries that require high skills and high labor intensity but few natural resources. 1_______. They like markets where consumers around the world would be willing to buy the same product design. 2_______.
Japanese study teams spend several months evaluating the target market, searching for market niches that are not being satisfied. Sometimes they start with a product that is as good as the competitor’s but priced lower, sometimes with a product with higher quality or new features. The Japanese provide quick service to their customers. 3_______. Their entry strategy is to build market share rather than early profits.
4_______. They spot new opportunities through market segmentation, develop markets in new countries, and work to build a network of world markets and production locations.