Вопрос № 1058050 - Английский язык

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History of robotics
1. The concept of robots dates back to ancient times, when some myths told of mechanical beings brought to life. Such automata also appeared in the clockwork figures of medieval churches, and in the 18th century some clockmakers gained fame for the clever mechanical figures that they constructed. Today the term automaton is usually applied to these handcrafted, mechanical (rather than electromechanical) devices that imitate the motions of living creatures. Some of the «robots» used in advertising and entertainment are actually automata, even with the addition of remote radio control.
2. The term robot itself is derived from the Czech word «robota», meaning «compulsory labour». It was first used by the Czech novelist and playwright Karel Chapek to describe a mechanical device that looks like a human but lacking human sensibility, being able of performing only automatic, mechanical operations. Robots as they are known today do not only imitate human or other living forms. True robots did not become possible, however, until the invention of the computer in the 1940s and the miniaturization of computer parts. One of the first true robots was an experimental model designed by researchers at the Stanford Research Institute in the late 1960s. It was capable of arranging blocks into stacks through the use of a television camera as a visual sensor, processing this information in a small computer.
3. Computers today are equipped with microprocessors that can handle the data being fed to them by various sensors of the surrounding environment. Making use of the principle of feedback, robots can change their operations to some degree in response to changes in that environment. The commercial use of robots is spreading, with the increasing automation of factories, and they have become essential to many laboratory procedures. Japan is the most advanced nation exploring robot technology. Nowadays robots continue to expand their applications.
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History of robotics
1. The concept of robots dates back to ancient times, when some myths told of mechanical beings brought to life. Such automata also appeared in the clockwork figures of medieval churches, and in the 18th century some clockmakers gained fame for the clever mechanical figures that they constructed. Today the term automaton is usually applied to these handcrafted, mechanical (rather than electromechanical) devices that imitate the motions of living creatures. Some of the «robots» used in advertising and entertainment are actually automata, even with the addition of remote radio control.
2. The term robot itself is derived from the Czech word «robota», meaning «compulsory labour». It was first used by the Czech novelist and playwright Karel Chapek to describe a mechanical device that looks like a human but lacking human sensibility, being able of performing only automatic, mechanical operations. Robots as they are known today do not only imitate human or other living forms. True robots did not become possible, however, until the invention of the computer in the 1940s and the miniaturization of computer parts. One of the first true robots was an experimental model designed by researchers at the Stanford Research Institute in the late 1960s. It was capable of arranging blocks into stacks through the use of a television camera as a visual sensor, processing this information in a small computer.
3. Computers today are equipped with microprocessors that can handle the data being fed to them by various sensors of the surrounding environment. Making use of the principle of feedback, robots can change their operations to some degree in response to changes in that environment. The commercial use of robots is spreading, with the increasing automation of factories, and they have become essential to many laboratory procedures. Japan is the most advanced nation exploring robot technology. Nowadays robots continue to expand their applications.
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What sphere of human activity was the term «robot» used for the first time?

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Electrical engineering
1. Electricity has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the early 17th century. The first electrical engineer was probably William Gilbert who designed the versorium: a device that detected the presence of statically charged objects. He was also the first to draw a clear distinction between magnetism and static electricity and is credited with establishing the term electricity. In 1775 Alessandro Volta's scientific experimentations devised the electrophorus, a device that produced a static electric charge, and by 1800 Volta developed the voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric battery.
2. Electrical engineering is a field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism. This field first became an identifiable occupation in the latter half of the 19th century after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the telephone, and electric power distribution and use. It now covers a wide range of subfields including electronics, digital computers, power engineering, telecommunications, control systems, RF engineering, and signal processing.
3. Electrical engineering may include electronic engineering. Where a distinction is made, usually outside of the United States, electrical engineering is considered to deal with the problems associated with systems such as electric power transmission and electrical machines, whereas electronic engineering deals with the study of electronic systems including computers, communication systems, integrated circuits, and radar. From a different point-of-view, electrical engineers are usually concerned with using electricity to transmit electric power, while electronic engineers are concerned with using electricity to process information.
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A heat engine
1. In thermodynamics, a heat engine is a system that performs the conversion of heat or thermal energy to mechanical work. It does this by bringing a working substance from a high temperature state to a lower temperature state. A heat «source» generates thermal energy that brings the working substance in the high temperature state. The working substance generates work in the «working body» of the engine while transferring heat to the colder «sink» until it reaches a low temperature state. During this process some of the thermal energy is converted into work by exploiting the properties of the working substance. The working substance can be any system with a non-zero heat capacity, but it usually is a gas or liquid.
2. In general an engine converts energy to mechanical work. Heat engines distinguish themselves from other types of engines by the fact that their efficiency is fundamentally limited by Carnot's theorem. Although this efficiency limitation can be a drawback, an advantage of heat engines is that most forms of energy can be easily converted to heat by processes like exothermic reactions (such as combustion), absorption of light or energetic particles, friction, dissipation and resistance. Since the heat source that supplies thermal energy to the engine can thus be powered by virtually any kind of energy, heat engines are very versatile and have a wide range of applicability.
3. Heat engines are often confused with the cycles they attempt to mimic. Typically when describing the physical device the term «engine» is used. When describing the model the term «cycle» is used.
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What is Impeachment
1. The American constitution provides that the «President and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors». Thus, impeachment is the constitutional remedy – the only one, addressed to serious offences against the system of government and the public trust.
2. Impeachment is an essentially political process. The Founding Fathers adopted this view of impeachment from English law. It’s a scope confined to political officials; it charges only «political crimes» and imposes purely «political punishments». An inquiry of impeachment examines the «undermining of the integrity of office, disregarding of constitutional duties and oath of office, arrogation of power, abuse of governmental process, and adverse impact on the system of government». Impeachment was intended to be a «safety valve, a security against an oppressive or corrupt President and his sheltered ministers». The Founding Fathers were familiar with the despotic rule a too-powerful executive could impose. Consequently, they constructed a safeguard against the executive abuse and usurpation of power that might occur in the separate executive branch. They conceived of impeachment as a means to preserve constitutional government.
3. There are three major duties imposed on the President by the Constitution and his oath of office. His first duty is «to take care that the laws be faithfully executed». The other two duties – «to faithfully execute the office of the President of the United States» and to «preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States» – are included in the oath of the office. The power of impeachment serves as a guarantee that these duties are performed.
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Interpol
1. Interpol is an intergovernmental body established to promote mutual cooperation between police authorities around the world and to develop means of effectively preventing crime. Founded in Vienna in 1923 and reconstituted in 1946, Interpol is strictly nonpolitical and is forbidden to undertake any activities of a religious, racial, or military nature. The majority of countries belong to Interpol, and only government-approved police bodies may hold membership. Among the first to fight international terrorism and hijackings, Interpol leads the war on narcotics, assists a number of nations in the continuing search for wanted Nazi war criminals. Interpol like any other police force is to safeguard the basic rights of every citizen.
2. The main bodies of Interpol are the general assembly, the executive committee, the general secretariat. The general assembly is composed of the delegates from each member country. It is “the Supreme Authority”. The general assembly meets annually to decide policy and to elect the executive committee, consisting of a president, three vice presidents, and nine delegates, all of different nationalities. The general secretariat, based in Lyons, France, is the permanent administrative headquarters. It contains a number of departments four of which specialize in certain crimes: one handles murder, burglary, assault, larceny, car theft, and missing persons; another deals with bank frauds and other types of embezzlement; a third with drug traffic and moral offences; and a fourth deals with forgery and counterfeiting. The general secretariat coordinates the international activities of member countries, holds a library of international criminal records, and organizes regular meetings at which delegates can exchange information on police work. Interpol is financed by contributions from member countries.
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