Вопрос № 223363 - Английский язык

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The greatest of Latin medical writers was without doubt Aulus Cornelius Celsus who lived in Rome at the beginning of our era.
Celsus was an outstanding encyclopedist of his time. Without being a practitioner, he was, however, a friend of physicians, a man of vast culture. He knew natural sciences and medicine and always expressed himself freely on different medical questions. – The complete work of Celsus, called ‘De artibus’, included agriculture, the military art, philosophy as well as medicine. The book that treats medicine, ‘De medicina libri octo’,was probably written in the reign of Tiberus between A.D. 25 and 35. The work was almost ignored by contemporary physicians, perhaps because nearly all of them as Greeks looked down on the work of a Roman. For centuries it was in oblivion. Only in the fifteenth century Celsus’ work on medicine was published in Florence.
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Why was his work ignored by contemporary physicians?

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How did Hippocrates treat diseases?
Hippocrates was known as an excellent doctor and a teacher of medicine. He established medical schools in Athens and in other towns. He wrote several books and many case histories. Hippocrates taught his pupils to examine the patient very attentively and to give him quick help. He created medicine on the basis of experience. He taught that every disease was a natural process and it had natural causes. Hippocrates treated diseases by exercise, massage, salt water baths, diet and suitable medicine. He observed diseases such a pneumonia, tuberculosis and malaria and added to the medical language such words as chronic, crisis, relapse and convalescence.
Hippocrates made medicine an art, a science and a profession.

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Searching for ways to save wounded limbs, Pirogov arrived at the idea of the rigid plaster cast. Once during a visit to the studio of a sculptor he knew, Pirogov noticed how fast plaster of Paris hardened when spread on fabric, and he realized what an important aid the plaster of Paris could be for surgeons. Pirogov used this cast for the first time in the Caucasian war as early as in 1847. During the heroic defence of Sevastopol in 1854 -1855, working at field hospitals and under shell fire, Pirogov extensively employed the gypsum cast and resection of joints instead of hasty amputations. The rigid plaster is the pride of Russian surgery.
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What is the pride of Russian surgery?

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The great surgeon Pirogov was the initiator of the extensive use of anaesthesia during operations. When elsewhere in Europe anaesthesia was still a secret of individual doctors and a loud advertising hullabaloo was raised around one experimental operation made on January 19, 1847, by the obstetrician Simpson, Pirogov was already engaged in large-scale scientific experiments on painless operations.
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Who was the initiator of the extensive use of anaesthesia during operations?

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At the beginning of 1847 Pirogov published a major treatise under the modest title of “Records and Physiological Observations of the Action of Ether Vapours on the Animal Organism”. In this work Pirogov describes 50 operations under anaesthesia, 40 cases of anaesthesia of healthy people, and many observations of animals. Pirogov was the first to use ether in removing cancer of the mammary gland.
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What did Pirogov use the first in removing cancer of the mammary gland?

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The surgical examination includes first the physical examination, then the laboratory and special examination. In the physical examination one usually includes only such observations as can be made by the surgeon with the aid only of five senses and perhaps such a simple apparatus as a stethoscope. It comprises what is often called a bedside examination in contrast to the results of special laboratory, X-ray and other tests.
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What does the surgical examination include?